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EARTH   SCr-NCF^S  LIBRARY 


THE  HUNTINGTON  GEOGRAPHY  SERIES 

COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Hy  10i.i.!*\v()HTH  II I  ntim;ii>-V  hikI  Si  mni.u  W.  Cushino. 
Wfirld  Hook  Company t  Voiikt'rs-oii-llu<lsoii,  New  York. 
A  t.'xtbook  for  grade  seven,  eicl't,  or  nine,  in  either  a  junior 
h'mh  sohool  or  a  Kruniniar  and  high  school  orRanization.  Gcok- 
raphy  is  presented  in  its  relation  to  prodiiction,  transportation, 
nianufactiirinp,  and  cotisnniption,  with  the  regional  Reopraphy 
of  the  lower  grades  reviewed  on  an  entirely  different  line  of 
approaeh  and  with  new  objectives.  The  book  is  provided  with 
a  large  number  of  exercises  and  problems,  in  the  solution  of  which 
till'  student  has  a  genuine  ])art. 

BUSINESS  GEOGRAPHY 

Ky   Ellswohth   Hintington   and   Frank   E.   Williams. 

With  the    cooperation  of   Robert   M.   Brown  and    Miss 

I.KNOX  K.  Chase.     4j?2  pages,  OjXSJ,  97  figures.     Cloth. 

.lulin  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  New  York. 
A  textl)ook  for  Schools  of  Conimeree,  commercial  departments 
in  colleges,  and  the  upper  high  school  grades.  This  book  is 
designed  for  students  who  have  previously  studied  such  a  text 
as  Huntington  and  Cushing's  Commercial  and  Industrial 
Geography.  It  presents  the  kind  of  geography  that  the  busi- 
ness man  needs.  Principles  and  the  effect  of  specific  geographic 
factors  are  first  treated,  then  types  of  business  communities, 
the  business  of  the  continents,  and  the  business  of  the  Uniteil 
States.  Thought  provoking  problems  are  presented  for  solution. 
Many  can  be  solved  by  means  of  a  unique  series  of  tables  which 
in  themselves  make  the  book  an  unusually  good  work  of  reference. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  HUMAN  GEOGRAPHY 

Ky   lOi.i.sw  (jui  II    II  I  .sri.N(;r().\   and    Simner    W.    Cushinc. 

■1:50  pages,  0X9,  118  figures.     Cloth.     John  Wiley  &  Sons, 

Inc  ,  New  Y'ork. 

A  textbook  for  normal  schools  and  colleges  where  an  advanced 

tteatment   of  the   general   principles   i^f,  geography   is   desired. 

This  book  is  especially  adapted  id  give  teaVhers  a  thorough 

understanding  of  geography  and  t'o  enable  them  to  classify  anil 

use  the  specific  geographical  facts  which   they  teach   to  their 

classes. 


PRINCIPLES 

OF 

HUMAN  GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

ELLS^YORTH    HUNTINGTON 

)  - 

RESEARCH    ASSOCIATE    IN    GEOGRAPHY,    YALE    UNIVERSITY 


SUMNER   W.   GUSHING 

lATE   HEAD   OF  THE   DEPARTMENT   OF   GEOGRAPHY   IN   THE 
STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL,    SALEM,    MASS. 


SECOND  EDITION,  REVISED 
TOTAL    ISSUE,  TWENTY-EIGHT    THOUSAND 


DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOC.RAPHY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CAi  IFORNIA 
BERKEiXY.  CALIFORNIA 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  Inc. 

London:    CHAPMAN    &   HALL,  Limited 
1922 


fWTZ  W^^ 


SQENCF.s 


Copyright,  1920,  1<>22, 

By 

ELLSWORTH  HUNTINGTON 

AND 

FRANCES  D.  CUSHING 


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EARTH 

PREFACE  SCIENCES 

LIBRAIW 


The  purpose  of  this  book  is,  first,  to  set  forth  the  great  principles 
of  geography  in  its  human  aspects;  second,  to  provide  a  compre- 
hensive, but  easily  taught  text  book  for  students  who  have  reached 
an  age  when  they  begin  to  tliink  for  themselves;  and,  third,  to  furnish 
to  normal  school  students  and  to  teachers  in  elementary  schools  a 
book  which  will  give  them  a  solid  grounding  in  the  human  relation- 
ships which  they  are  eager  to  teach.  INIany  books  have  been  written 
on  "  anthropogeogi'aph}',"  but  there  seems  to  be  great  need  of  a  book 
which  simis  up  the  present  status  of  that  subject  and  at  the  same 
time  translates  it  into  the  simpler  terminology  of  "  human  geography." 

The  method  of  the  book  is  to  take  up  first  the  phj^sical  back- 
ground, not  dwelling  on  it  technically,  but  merely  sketching  the 
main  outhnes,  and  providing  an  adequate  basis  if  the  teacher  wishes 
to  go  farther.  In  case  of  such  relatively  simple  matters  as  water 
bodies,  little  or  no  physiographic  treatment  is  deemed  necessary,  for 
such  details  as  the  difference  between  a  meandering  and  braided  liver 
have  httle  effect  on  man's  activities.  The  fundamental  principles  of 
climate,  on  the  other  hand,  have  been  quite  fully  treated  because  of 
their  supreme  importance  in  determining  nian's  mode  of  life.  Never- 
theless, pure  meteorology  receives  less  attention  than  in  most  of  the 
physiographic  text  books  which  are  now  the  main  reliance  in  teaching 
advanced  geography. 

After  the  physical  background  has  been  sketched  each  chapter  or 
part  of  the  l)Ook  plunges  directly  into  the  main  theme,  that  is,  the 
relation  of  the  physiographic  environment  to  man's  activities.  This 
is  the  part  of  geography  which  is  most  interesting,  most  practical, 
and  most  calculated  to  call  forth  geiniiiic  Uiought  and  concen- 
trated effort  on  the  part  of  the  student.  It  is  also  the  part  which  in 
most  books  is  more  or  less  incidental  oi*  seconfiaiy,  whereas  it  is  here 
the  primary  object. 

The  chief  points  in  which  this  book  dillVrs  from  other  books  of 
geography  are,  first,  its  concentration  on  human  relationships;  sec- 
ond, its  emphasis  on  the  cjfcds  of  climate  ratluM'than  ujion  the  phys- 
ical and  meteorological  sides  of  the  subject;  third,  its  inclusion  of 
chapters  on  Vegetation  ami  Did,  two  subjects  wliose  geographical 

iii 

283 


IV  PREFACE 

siffiiificanco  lias  Ix'cn  laijicly  overlooked;  and  fomili,  its  int('ri)ro- 
tation  of  political  pioography.  This  last  part  of  tlie  subject  does 
not  mean  the  study  of  j)olitical  divisions,  hut  of  the  i)olitical  relation- 
ships, both  domestic  and  foreif^n,  which  arise  out  of  geographic  con- 
ditions. 

Finally  the  present  volume  departs  from  its  predecessors  by  adfling 
genuine  probl(>ms  to  the  mere  qiiestions  which  are  ordinarily  found 
at  the  end  of  chaptei-s.  In  adual  jiractice  it  has  Ijeen  found  that 
studentL  take  liold  of  the  pioMcins  with  gn>at  eagerness  and  energ}-. 

So  many  Icachcrs  and  others  Ikia-c  gi\('n  suggestions  of  great 
value  in  regard  to  various  chapters  that  it  is  impossible  for  the 
authoi*s  to  do  more  than  express  their  dee)")  gratitude  to  all  who  haA-e 
assisted.  Special  mention  should  l)e  made,  however,  of  Miss  Mary 
E.  Sanders,  formerly  of  Cheltenham  College,  England,  mIio  has 
assisted  in  prei)ariDg  the  exercises. 


NOTE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

In  tlic  icviscd  edition  of  this  Ijook  large  parts  of  ('hai)ter  II  have 
been  icuiittcn  as  have  certain  sections  of  Chapters  IV,  \'II,  X,  and 
XI II.  Minor  alterations  have  been  made  in  many  other  chapters 
and  new  prol)lems  have  in  some  cases  been  added.  The  following 
persons  have  helped  materially  in  the  revision  l)y  critical  reading  of 
the  entire  book  or  of  parts  of  it  dealing  with  their  si)ecialties.  Their 
kindness  is  gratefully  acknowledged:  G.  G.  Chishohn,  Professor  of 
Geography,  University  of  Edinburgh;  William  Morris  Davis,  Pro- 
fessor of  Geography,  Harvard  I'liiversity;  Roland  M.  Harper, 
Alal)ama  Geological  Sui^vty;  \\".  .1.  Hunii)hreys,  Professor  of  Meteor- 
ological Physics,  United  States  Weatiier  Bureau;  Atlolj)!!  Kimpf, 
Associate  Profes.sor  of  Petrolog>',  Yale  UnivcMsily;  D.  H.  Markhani, 
Professor  of  Geography,  University  of  Arkansas;  H.  A.  Manner, 
U.  S.  Coast  and  CJeotletic  Survey;  Stephen  S.  Msher,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Geography,  Indiana  University,  and  A.  E.  Waller, 
Professor  of  liotany,  Ohio  State  I'niver.sity. 

The  revision  has  also  been  facilitated  through  reviews  by  Dr. 
C.  E.  P.  Brooks,  Royal  Meteorological  Soci(>ty;  Professor  R.  D. 
Calkins,  State  Normal  School,  Mt.  Pleasant,  Michigan;  tne  Bulletin 
of  the  Imperial  Institute  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  (  "olonies,  and 
India;  and  espeei.-dly  Professor  Il;iil;in  II.  P,aii()ws  ui  the  Univ(>rsity 
of  Chicago. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface iii 

Table  of  Contents v 

List  of  Illustrations vii 

Note  to  the  Teacher xi 


PART  I.     MAN'S  RELATION  TO  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT 

CHAPTER  I 
HuMAJsr  Geography ■■  1 

PART  IL     MAN'S  RELATION  TO  LOCATION 

CHAPTER  n 
The  Effect  of  the  Earth's  Form  and  Motions 23 

PART  III.     MAN'S  RELATION  TO  LAND  FORMS 

CHAPTER   in 

The  Continents  and  Man 51 

CHAPTER   IV 
Hitman  Activities  in  Mountains  and  Plains 78 

PART  IV.     .V.l.V'.V  RELATION  TO  BODIES  OF  WATER 

CHAPTER  V 
The  Inflitence  of  the  Oceans 103 

CHAPTER   VI 
The  Use  of  Inland  A\atkks 128 

/'.IA'7'   1.     .l/.l.V.s-  h'KLATION   TO  SOIL  AXL)  MINERALS 

CHAPTER  Vn 

Soil  and  the  Farmer 153 

V 


viii  LIST  (W  lI.I.rsTHATinx;^ 

FIC.  rA^E 

'A'}  The  Winding  C';in;i<li;in  I'aciric  H;»ilni;i(l  near  I'idd,  liritish  ( 'oluiiiliia. .      N!» 

.'iC.     r., rests  in  the  United  States ',M 

'.i7.     \\'(irld  Map  ShnwiuK  Distribution  of  Pdjjulation '.)9 

;iS.     World  Mai)  Showiiip  Density  of  Population 100 

3;».     Tlie  Italian  Town  of  Porto  Fino 118 

4(1.     Hush  T.Tininal,  New  York  City 119 

11.      Map  of  iMiropean  \\'aterways 137 

I'J.      Dam  and  Watcr-Power  Site  at  Manchester,  X.  H 145 

43.  lU'rd  lioats  on  the  Indus  River 146 

44.  Cotton  Mills  in  the  United  States loO 

4.').     .\  Phenomenal  Corn  Crop  Raised  by  Boys Kil 

40.     Wheat  ThreshinK  in  Oklahoma Ki'i 

47.  ElTect  of  Currents  on  Texture  of  Soil KIC) 

48.  Cold  Production  in  Yukon 170 

49.  A  Dro|)-Ilannner  Forpiufj;  a  Steel  Axle  for  a  Railroad  Car 172 

50.  Silver  Mine  at  Rroken  Hill,  New  South  Wales,  Australia 173 

51.  Protluclion  of  (!old  for  Four  Centuries.     Annual  Averages  for  Periods 

of  5  to  20  Years 174 

52.  World  Production  of  Cold  and  Silver  since  1860 175 

53.  Distribution  of  Iron  Ore 17S 

54.  Production  of  Iron 180 

55.  Distribution  of  the  Copper  Ores 182 

56.  Production  of  Copper 182 

57.  Distribution  of  the  World's  Lead  Supply 184 

58.  Distribution  of  flic  World's  Zinc  Supply 184 

59.  Map  of  Coal  in  the  United  States 190 

60.  Distribution  of  Coal  Deposits 191 

61.  Distribution  of  Coal  Production 191 

62.  Shoving  Cars  in  a  Coal  Mine 193 

63.  Spinning  in  Palestine 194 

64.  Distribution  of  Petroleum  Su])])lies 198 

65.  Production  of  Petroleum 199 

66.  Snow.stonn  on  Mount  Wilson,  Calif 207 

f)7.     ( )n  the  Coast  of  Cochin-Cliina 208 

68.  I're.ssure  Belts  on  a  Simjjlificd  ( iloix- 212 

69.  Diagnim  of  Rising  and  Cooling  .\ir      215 

70.  Di.'igrammatic   Plan  of  Seasonal    Rainfall   and   of   W-gctation  on   an 

Ideal  (  ;iobe 219 

71.  .Mean  'I'emperature  of  .January 225 

72.  Mean  Temperature  of  .July 226 

73.  Pressure  and  Winds  in  January 228 

71.     I  're,s.surc  and  Winds  in  July 229 

75.  ( )eean  Currents 231 

76.  North  .Atlantic  Sailing  Chart  for  August.     Fog 233 

77.  North  Atlantic  Sailing  Chart  for  August,     dales 234 

78.  Summer  i^ainfall 236 

7'.t.     Winter  Rainfall 237 

50,  I'.lTeet  of  Altitude  <in  Rainfall 241 

51 .  Aimiial  liainfall       242 

82.     Modes  of  Life 244 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  ix 

FIG.  PAGE 

S3.  Average   Monthly  Temperature   and   I'vainfall   of  Typical   Plaees  in 

North  America 245 

84.  Average  Monthly  Temperature  and  Hainl'all  of  Typical  Places  in  the 

Old  World 246 

85.  Map  of  Climatic  Energy 255 

86.  Map  of  Civilization 256 

87.  An  Adirondack  Forest 266 

88.  Desert  Vegetation  in  Southern  Arizona 267 

89.  I\Lap  of  Distribution  of  Vegetation 269 

90.  Ideal  Distribution  of  Vegetation 270 

91.  Distribution  of  Cattle 282 

92.  "Paddy"  Fields  on  Terraces  in  Ceyl;)n 285 

93.  A  Mopea  House  in  Malabar 286 

94.  Subtropical  versus  Monsoon  Rainfall 297 

95.  Distribution  of  Rice 299 

96.  Distribution  of  Sheep 300 

97.  Service  at  a  Mohammedan  Mosque  in  Northern  India 301 

98.  Distribution  of  Cotton 304 

99.  Cotton  Acreage  in  the  United  States 305 

100.  Migration  of  the  Boll  Weevil 306 

101.  Irrigation  Projects  in  the  Western  United  States 321 

102.  An  Irrigation  Dam  in  Northern  India 323 

103.  An  Irrigated  Orange  Grove  in  Arizona 324 

104.  Distribution  of  Wheat .  334 

105.  Distribution  of  Potatoes 335 

106.  Distribution  of  Corn 336 

107.  Distribution  of  Swine 337 

108.  Distribution  of  Oats 338 

109.  Distribution  of  Horses 339 

110.  Percentage  of  Population  Engaged  in  Maiuifacturing 345 

111.  Purchases  of  the  United  States  Abroad 346 

112.  Sales  of  the  United  States  Abroad 347 

113.  An  Elephant  Cart  full  of  Cocoanuts  in  Burma 352 

114.  A  Modern  Railroad  Yard 353 

115.  Summer  Rainfall  in  Kansas 364 

116.  Changes  of  Climate  in  California  During  the  Christian  Era 370 

117.  An  .American  Butter  Factory 372 

118.  A  Ruined  Tower  in  Eastern  Persia 373 


NOTE   TO  THE  TEACHER 


Questions,  Exercises  and  Problems 

In  order  that  the  Principles  of  Human  Geography  may  be 
effectively  taught,  full  use  should  be  made  of  the  questions, 
exercises  and  problems  that  follow  each  chapter.  These  vary 
considerably  in  difficulty  and  in  subject  matter,  some  being  phys- 
iographic, some  economic,  or  historical,  and  many  purely  anthro- 
pogeographic.  Thus  they  are  adapted  to  students  of  different 
grades  of  ability  and  of  different  interests.  For  younger  classes, 
such  as  those  of  the  high  school,  only  the  simplest  problems  need 
be  used,  while  th(»  more  complex  problems  will  tax  the  powers  of 
the  most  brilliant  college  student.  INIany  of  the  prol)lems,  however, 
are  elastic.  They  may  ho  solved  briefly  and  in  a  g(>n(M-al  way  by 
young  and  relatively  ])a('kward  students,  but  need  much  time  and 
thought  in  the  hands  of  capable  and.  advanced  students.  Again,  a 
large  numl)er  of  the  problems  are  suited  to  many  regions  in  atldition 
to  the  ones  mentioned  in  the  text.  In  all  cases,  however,  stress 
should  be  laid  on  the  students'  own  homes.  The  principles  discussed 
in  the  text,  as  well  as  in  the  problems,  should  be  ai)plied  first  of  all 
to  the  local  region,  which  should  serve  as  a  starting  point  for  an 
understanding  of  the  remoter  parts  of  the  world. 

Often  it  will  be  wise  to  assign  the  same  problem  to  the  whole 
class,  but  let  each  student  tak(>  a  diffcM-ent  region.  The  more  coin- 
pl(>x  problems  can  sometimes  be  best  solved  by  letting  each  student 
make  an  exhaustive  study  of  one  special  phase  and  then  uniting  the 
results  in  a  classroom  exercise.  Thi-oughout  \hc  ))ro])l('ms  great 
stress  should  be  laid  on  (1)  accurate  statistics  as  opposed  to  loose 
generalizations;  and  (2)  map-making  in  contrast  to  mere  state- 
ments in  woifls.  Wherever  possible^  written  statements  should  l)e 
supplemented  by  accurate  diagrams  and  ma])s.  In  using  the  prol)- 
lems  and  exercises  do  not  be  in  too  nmch  haste  to  give  your  studiMits 
your  own  matured  conclusions.  ,s7/(;^/"  trJicre  to  find  the  facts  mid  how 
to  use  them,  and  let  the  students  reason  for  themsth'es. 

xi 


xii  xott:  to  tiii:  'i'i:.\f'TiER 


Tk)()KS   FOR   rii:M;K.\L     IvKKKHEXCE 

'I'lic  Principles  (if  Ilmii.iii  (  Icduinpliy  can  lie  cfTcct  i\cly  fauuht 
with  a  small  ('(luipiiicnt .  'I'lic  liooks  listed  helow  should  he  available 
so  tliat  oveiy  ineinlxT  of  the  class  may  l)e  able  to  consult   them 

freely. 

1.  A  {food  atlas  containing  physical  as  well  as  political  maps. 
Longmans,  CJreen,  tt  Co.,  J.  (J.  Bartholomew,  (ieo.  Philip  ct  Son, 
and  several  other  publishers,  all  jmblish  inexpensive  atlases  that 
meet  the  requirements.     Every  student  should  own  an  atlas. 

2.  A  larjre  connnercial  atlas.  liai'tholomew's  Atlas  of  Econoiiiic 
Geography  is  excellent,  but  sevtTal  otiiers  are  almost  etjually  good 
and  less  expensive. 

'A.  A  good  encyclopedia,  preferably  Britannica  or  the  Inter- 
national. 

4.  The  World  Almanac,  Current  Edition.  Press  Publishing  Co., 
Pulitz(>r  Bldg.,  New  York. 

5.  The  Statesman's  Yearl)ook.  Cm-rent  Edition.  The  Macmillan 
Co.,  New  York. 

6.  *Geograpli>-  of  the  ^^'o^ld■s  Agricultuio.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington. 

7.  *Foreign  Conmierce  and  Navigation  of  the  United  States. 
Latest  Edition.     Department  of  Conunerce,  Washington. 

8.  *StatisticaI  Abstract  of  the  United  States.  Current  l\(liti.)n. 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Washington. 

9.  *Year  Books  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washingtfm. 

10.  *Al)stract  of  the  United  States  C(Misns.  Census  Bui-(\iu 
Washington. 

11.  *Atlas  of  the  United  States  Census.  Census  P)ureau, 
A\'a>liington. 

12.  Two  or  thre(>  elementary  school  geogi'ai)liies  by  different 
authors. 

VS.  J.  Brunhes:  Human  (Jeography;  translated  and  edited  by 
Dfxlge,  Bowman  and  Lecomte.     l^and-McNally  Co.,  Chicago. 

II.  Ci.  (1.  ("liisholm:  llamlliook  of  Connneicial  (leomaphy; 
LoiiLrmans,  (Ireen,  tV:  ("o..  New  ^drk. 

I.'),  l^llswortli  Huntington:  Civilization  and  Climate;  Yale  Uni- 
versity Press,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

*  Can  be  piircha-socl  at  cost  from  tho  Suporintondont  of  Public  Doriimcnts, 
Washinntoii,  I).  C,  or  ran  bci  procured  through  Congrt's.smcn  or  by  direct 
applicatinii  to  llic  jjropcr  Bureau  or  Department, 


NOTE  TO  THE  TEACHER  xiii 

16.  Mark  Jefferson:  Commercial  Values;  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

17.  H.  II.  Mill:  International  Geography;  D.  Appleton  &  Co., 
New  York. 

18.  Salisbury,  Barrows  and  Tower:  The  Elements  of  Geography; 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 

19.  E.  C.  Semple:  Influences  of  Geogniphic  Environment; 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 

20.  J.  Russell  Smith:  Industrial  and  Commercial  Geography; 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 

21.  R.  DeC.  Ward:  CHmate:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 

Special  Reference  Books 

Every  class  in  the  principles  of  geography  should  have  access 
to  a  well-selected  and  not  too  voluminous  assortment  of  (1)  the 
best  and  most  thoughtful  books  of  travel  and  description,  not 
more  than  two  or  three  on  any  one  country;  (2)  statistical  books; 
(3)  standard  text  books;  (4)  a  few  standard  geographical  sets, 
such  as  Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography,  Appleton's  Regions 
of  the  World,  the  Oxford  British  Empire  Series,  and  Reclus'  The 
Earth  and  Its  Inhal)itants,  which  though  old  is  still  unp;vralleled  in 
interest  and  in  the  power  of  stinmlating  thought ;  (o)  books  on 
special  topics  such  as  soil,  agriculture,  irrigation,  mining,  forestry, 
manufacturing,  transportation,  and  commerce;  and  (6)  books 
giving  statistics,  descriptions,  and  historical  accounts  of  the  local 
city,  county,  and  state. 

Any  r('as()nal)ly  good  library  contains  a  good  deal  of  valuable 
matci-ial  along  the  lines  here  suggested,  and  a  year's  experience  will 
show  the  gaps  that  need  to  be  filled.  In  clioosing  hooks  of  the  six 
types  here  recommended,  it  nuist  Ix^  rememberc'd  that  a  total  library 
of  only  one  or  two  hundred  well-seUvtcHl  books,  each  of  which  is 
worth  i-(';uiing,  is  fai'  better  tlian  sevcM'al  thousand  books  among 
which  the  student  finds  larg(»  (iu;uitities  of  chaff.  Kcvp  your  n^fer- 
ence  books  relatively  few  in  number  and  liigh  in  quality,  and  make 
the  students  use  them. 

Wall  Maps 

Effect iv(>  Icachinti'  ref|uii('s  as  full  a  s('i-i(>s  of  wall  maps  as  possible. 
These  should  include  (I)  relief;  (2)  jiolilical  divisions;  (3)  summer 
and  winter  temperature;  (4)  summer  and  winter  rainfall;  (5) 
vegetation;  ((>)  resources;  (7)  density  of  pojiulation;  (S)  trans- 
portation;   (9)  conimeice  and  industry;    (10)  othei-  conditions,  such 


xiv  NOTE  TO  Till':  'ii:.\(in:R 

as  occupations,  raoo.  religion,  lanpuago.  lu-alth,  ci-o])s,  maimfac- 
turcs.  niiiu'ral  products,  and  so  forth.  A  .scries  of  world  inap.s 
.should  first  l)o  {jrocurcd.  and  then — as  nianj'  continental  maps  as 
possible,  lioginninii;  with  North  America,  or  the  United  States, 
and  Europe.  The  I'hilips  Series  (American  Agents,  Denoyer- 
(k'pi)ert  Comjiany,  Chicago)  is  excellent.  The  preparation  of 
wall  majis  sho\\'ing  conditions  not  included  in  the  jjublished  series 
is  one  of  the  best  exercises  for  students  of  unusual  ability.  Large 
outline  maps  for  this  pur])ose  can  be  procured  through  almost  any 
dealer  in  guogrupliical  supplies. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  HUMAN   GEOGRAPHY 


PART  I 
MAN'S  RELATION  TO  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT 


CHAPTER  I 
HUMAN  GEOGRAPHY 

Nature  of  Human  Geography. — All  over  the  world  the  people  of 
different  places  vary  in  appearance,  dress,  manners,  and  ideas. 
They  eat  different  kinds  of  food,  and  enjoy  different  pleasures.  They 
differ  in  the  way  they  work  and  get  a  living,  and  in  their  government, 
education,  and  religion.  Above  all  they  vary  in  their  capacity  for 
work.  Some,  Hke  the  Scotch,  are  active  in  body  and  mind,  and  are 
able  to  make  inventions  or  improvements.  Others,  like  the  Papuans 
of  New  Guinea,  are  slow  in  movement  and  so  inactive  in  mind  that 
they  rarely  think  of  doing  anything,  except  as  their  ancestors  did  it. 

These  differences  are  the  subject  matter  of  Human  Geography. 
They  arise  largely  from  differences  in  geographical  surroimdings,  or 
physical  environment,  to  use  a  more  technical  term.     Hence,  Human  ., 
Geography  may  be  defined  as  the  study  of  the  relation  of  geographical  |/ 
enviroiunent  to  human  activiti(>s. 

How  Human  Geography  Should  be  Studied. — The  science  of 
himian  geogi-aphy  ma}"  be  studied  in  many  waj's.  One  of  the  best 
is  to  think  of  it  as  a  series  of  problems,  or  questions  for  which  answers 
nmst  be  found.  Some  of  these  problems  are  large  and  complex  like 
the  problem  of  how  far  the  progress  of  a  given  people  is  due  to  the 
geographical  conditions  imder  which  they  live.  For  example,  why 
are  the  people  of  the  forests  of  Central  Africa  primitive  hunters  and 
those  of  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia  ignorant  cattle  raisers,  while 
those  of  New  Jersey  are  a  iiighly  civilized  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial people.  So  great  a  proljlem  can  be  solvetl  only  through  tiic 
solution  of  many  smaller  ones,  such  as  the  effect  of  rainfall,  vegetation. 


2  MAX'S    HKLATIOX    'l<  >    I•I1^SI(•\I,    lA  \  I  i;().\.Mi;XT 

and  distance  from  tho  ocean,  upon  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and  tools, 
and  es]ieci:vlly  upon  man's  occupations,  heahh,  and  energy-.  ICven  such 
scconiiarv  prohlcms.  however,  ave  too  comphcated  to  be  easily  solved. 
The  way  to  solve  tlicni  is  first  to  study  many  minor  problems.  For 
example,  even  a  child  can  see  that  since  good  grass  does  not  jvrow  in 
the  forests  of  New  (luinea,  cattle  cannot  thrive  there.  It  is  ecjually 
easy  to  solve  the  jii-oblem  of  why  the  people  of  Central  Asia,  where 
the  thermometer  often  drops  below'  zero,  wear  sheepskin  coats,  while 
those  of  Central  Africa,  wliere  a  temperature  of  70°  is  considered 
cold,  wear  almost  no  clothing.  Thus  Human  Ceograi^hj-  n^ay  be 
thought  of  as  a  vast  sei'ies  of  simple  problems  leading  to  others  that 
are  more  comjilex.  To  both  student  and  teacher  the  solution  of 
such  problems  becomes  intensely  interesting  as  soon  as  the  spirit  of 
the  wni-k  is  well  understood. 

Ill  this  Noluiiie  we  shall  study  some  of  ii'.an's  chief  iclatioiis  to 
his  environment  and  find  whj'  these  relations  vary  from  one  part  of 
the  world  to  another.  While  all  the  main  phases  of  human  geograjihj'' 
will  be  considered,  most  of  our  attention  will  be  devoted  to  the  most 
practical  parts,  which  are  also  the  most  interesting.  The  practical 
parts  are  tlie  piT)])l(>iiis  that  are  useable  in  our  daily  lives,  those,  for 
instance,  lliat  help  us  understand  what  we  read  in  liooks,  n'agazines, 
and  newspaiKM'S,  that  enable  us  to  discuss  current  events  iulellimiitly, 
and  that  guide  us  in  plans  foi-  ])usiness  or  travel. 

The  Elements  of  Human  Geography. — In  spite  of  the  vast  num- 
ber and  great  complexity  of  tlie  problems  of  human  geogra])hy,  they 
can  be  classified  into  a  lew  main  types,  the  relation  of  which  can  be 
understood  from  Fig.  1. 

I.  Location. —  On  1li(>  left  of  I'ig.  1  are  the  five  chief  features 
of  man's  geogiai)hic;d  surroundings.  The  first  is  location.  The 
location  of  a  man's  home  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  geograph- 
ical facts  that  infiuence  him.  It  detcMinines  whether  he  shall  five 
in  the  torrid  zone,  the  desert,  or  the  frozen  Noi'th.  If  his  home  is 
located  in  the  interior  of  a  continent,  say  in  Colorado,  he  can  scarcely 
be  ;i  sailor  or  a  deep-sea  fisherman.  Again,  location  determines 
wjiether  a  person  shall  have  only  a  few  scattered  neighbors,  too  back- 
ward to  supjx)rt  schools,  as  in  Labrador;  or  .a  multitude  of  progressive 
Jieigiihors  close  at    liaiul,  as  in    Illinois. 

II.  Land  Forms.  The  i  ■fleet  of  the  form  of  the  lands  can  be  icadily 
seen.  The  prairies  of  southern  Illinois  and  the  most  rugged  jiails  of 
West  Virginia  differ  relatively  little  in  climate,  and  only  mod(Mately 
in  soil  and  altitude.  Hut  tlie\'  diffei'  gre:;tly  in  density  of  po])ulation 
because  rugged  inoiinlMiiis  proxidc  almost  no  place  lor  people  to  li\'e. 
Because  of  relief  such  ix'ople  as  the  1  )utc!i  iuo\e  nhoul  fret  ly  and  come 


HUMAN   GEOGRAPHY 


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4  MAN'S   HI'I-ATIOX  To   IMIVSK'AL  FA'VI  IK  )\Mi:\T 

in  contact  with  thoir  noip;lil)()rs,  while  others,  hke  the  Tibetans,  are 
hemmed  in  hv  steep  sIojk's,  impassable  valleys,  ami  snowy  passes. 

HI.  Water  Bodies. — Oceans,  lakes,  and  rivers  often  separate 
country  from  country,  and  thus  lead  to  jjreat  differences  in  race, 
lanpuafie,  and  customs.  On  one  side  of  the  Engli.sh  Channel  the 
people"  speak  Knulish  and  on  the  other  French  partly  because  the 
inten-eninp;  body  of  water  has  prevented  free  interminfjlinp;.  Bodies 
of  water  also  serve  as  m(\ins  of  communication,  and  tlius  link  j-x^ople 
together.  The  liuntci-  in  ( 'aiiada  would  find  it  dillicult  to  travel 
far  throufih  tiie  forest  if  he  could  not  use  his  bark  canoe  on  the 
many  lak(>s  and  rivers.  On  a  laifier  scale  the  harbors  of  New  York, 
Liverpool,  and  Amsterdam,  with  their  Ihionss  of  great  ships,  prove 
how  closely  th(^  oceans  link  country  to  country. 

I\'.  Soil  and  Minerals. — A  large  part  of  the  world's  wealth  comes 
from  the  soil.  Where  the  soil  is  fine-grained  and  deep,  as  in  the 
plains  of  northei-n  France  and  Ohio,  the  farmers  are  prosperous. 
A  poor  sandy  soil,  even  with  a  good  climate,  may  make  a  region 
poverty-stricken.  For  instance,  in  ]Mississipi:)i  and  Alabama  the 
chief  physical  difference  between  the  sandy  pine  belt  and  the  rich  fine- 
soiled  "  black  belt,"  where  cotton  grows,  is  the  soil;  but  this  differ- 
ence makes  one  region  the  home  of  poor  farmers  who  can  scarcely 
get  a  living,  unless  large  quantities  of  fertilizers  are  mixed  with  the 
soil,  while  the  other  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  parts  of  the  South. 

Mineral  wealth,  as  well  as  soil,  is  of  vast  importance.  Without 
metal-bearing  ores  Hke  those  of  the  Upper  Peninsula  of  Michigan, 
there  would  be  no  such  thing  as  the  machineiy  which  runs  the  mills 
of  Massachusetts.  Other  minerals  such  as  the  coal  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  jwtroleum  of  Texas,  are  the  chief  source  of  power  for  manu- 
facturing and  commerce.  After  the  Great  War  the  demand  for 
petroleum  was  so  insistent  that  every  one  of  the  great  powers,  in- 
cluding even  Russia  in  the  midst  of  its  revolution,  sent  a  commission 
to  Mexico  to  tiy  and  get  a  share  in  that  countiy's  oil.  At  the  same 
time  the  sliicken  people  of  Europe,  who  were  almost  starving,  were 
cr>'ing  to  the  I'nited  States  for  minerals,  especially  coal,  almost  as 
urgently  as  for  food. 

V.  Chmate.  'Die  last  of  the  five  great  features  of  physical  envi- 
ronment is  the  most  important.  Climate  enters  into  each  of  the  other 
four,  as  shown  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  1.  It  depends  on  location; 
it  is  greatly  influenced  bj^  land  forms  and  water  bodies,  and  influences 
tliem  in  icturii;  and  it  has  a  great  effect  on  the  character  of  many 
soils.  I'oi-  example,  the  difference  betw(>en  the  d<>seii  climate  of  the 
coast  of  Peru  :iiid  llie  wet.  climate  of  the  foicsted  headwaters  of  the 
Amazon  in  I'razil  is  wliolh-  due  to  the  form  or  I'dicf  of  the  Andes. 


HUMAN  GEOGRAPHY  5 

On  the  other  hand,  the  sand  dunes  of  western  China  are  the  result 
of  a  desert  cUinate,  while  the  "Black  Earth"  region  of  Russia  owes 
its  rich  soil  to  a  moist  climate. 

CUmate  also  determines  the  character  of  the  plants  and  animals 
in  different  regions.  It  causes  oranges  and  bananas  to  come  from 
Costa  Rica,  and  wheat  from  Minnesota.  Still  more  important  is 
the  fact  that  man's  energy  depends  largely  upon  climate.  The 
Costa  Rican  planter  cannot  possibly  work  as  hard  as  the  Min- 
nesota farmer.  In  the  far  North  not  only  does  the  climate  cause  the 
Eskimos  to  be  poorly  nourished,  but  the  steady  cold  benumbs  their 
minds  and  bodies,  and  prevents  progress.  In  the  Congo  forests,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  hampers  progress  by  favoring  malaria  and  other 
deadly  diseases.  Only  in  countries  like  England,  where  the  weather 
is  variable,  and  not  too  extreme,  can  man  be  at  his  best. 

A.  Plants. — It  is  almost  impossible  to  think  of  the  five  great 
features  of  physical  environment  without  also  thinking  of  plants. 
The  location  of  Greenland  reminds  us  of  the  absence  of  vegetation 
and  the  consequent  impossibility  of  man's  getting  a  living.  When 
land  forms  such  as  plains,  are  mentioned,  broad  acres  of  rich  crops 
come  to  mind,  while  the  word  "mountains"  brings  a  picture  of  rough 
slopes  covered  with  forests. 

Even  water  bodies  infiucnce  man  through  the  minute  plants 
which  make  it  possilile  for  fish  to  inhabit  their  cool  depths,  and  thus 
lead  men  out  over  the  stormy  seas  as  fishermen.  When  it  comes  to 
soil  there  is  ahnost  no  reason  for  thinking  of  it  except  as  it  enables 
corn,  wheat,  or  grass,  for  example,  to  grow  richly  as  in  Iowa,  while  in 
other  regions,  such  as  the  sandy  parts  of  Cape  Cod,  it  makes  the 
crops  almost  too  poor  to  be  worth  harvesting.  Finally,  to  many 
people,  the  chief  indication  of  climatic  chfferences  is  vegetation. 
The  date  pahn  stands  for  dry  hot  deserts,  the  cocoanut  palm  for 
moist  tropical  coasts,  the  cotton  plant  for  somewhat  more  temperate 
regions,  and  timdra  moss  for  an  arctic  climate. 

B.  Animals. — Although  animals  are  less  important  than  plants, 
they  influence  man  in  a  thousantl  ways.  If  there  were  no  horses  and 
oxen  the  prairies  might  have  remained  uncultivated,  and  in  most 
parts  of  Europe  and  America  the  growth  of  a  thick  sod  would  make 
agriculture  impossible.  Without  the  sheep  not  only  would  our  food 
supi^ly  be  diminished,  but  we  should  not  know  where  to  turn  for 
warm  winter  clothing.  The  only  good  substitute  would  be  furs, 
but  they,  too,  are  derived  from  animals.  Ahnost  equally  impoitant 
in  our  daily  lives  are  the  cows,  which  give  us  the  most  perfect  of  all 
foods;  wliile  the  hens  that  lay  several  Inllion  eggs  eveiy  year  in  the 
United  States  would  be  sadly  missed  if  tlu-ir  cackle  should  forever 


6  MAN'S    RELATION    To    I'II^SI(•AL    KWIlxOXMENT 

cease.  In  many  sections  of  Portup;ucse  East  Africa  llio  tsotso  fly 
not  only  kills  all  the  horses,  sheej),  and  cattle,  but  transmits  to  man  a 
terrible  wasting  disease;  while  the  malarial  mosciuito  continually 
brings  sickjiess  and  helps  to  make  him  ineffective.  Even  in  our 
own  land  animals  are  harmful  as  well  as  helpful.  The  common  or 
tyi>lioiil  II3'  brings  many  dangerous  diseases;  and  the  disgusting  rat 
not  only  consumes  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  property 
each  year,  bul  also  spic-ids  llic  ]/lague. 

C.  Man:  How  Man  Responds  to  Geographic  Surroundings,  (a) 
Material  Needs,  and  (b)  Occupations. — The  total  effect  of  physical 
en\'ironment  upon  man  is  sununed  up  in  the  last  two  columns  of 
Fig.  1  on  i^age  3.  The  first  of  these  two  colunms  divides  the  re- 
sponses into  four  great  classes.  In  studying  the  first  class,  material 
needs,  we  ask:  How  do  man's  geographical  surroundings  determine 
the  materials  which  he  uses  to  satisfy  his  jih^-sical  needs?  In  the 
second  class  come  man's  occupations,  and  here  we  ask:  How  does 
man  supjily  his  physical  needs,  that  is,  what  occupations  does  he 
follow  for  this  purpose? 

(c)  Efficiency. — ^\Miile  all  men  have  material  needs  and  all  follow 
certain  occupations  in  order  to  satisfy  these  necnls,  the  energy  which 
they  i)ut  into  their  occupations  varies  enormously.  Some  are  so  lazj^ 
that  they  never  work  unless  they  are  actually  hungry,  wliile  others 
are  so  energetic  that  they  work  until  they  kill  themselves.  Such 
differences  depend  partlj--  on  race  or  inheritance,  for  some  races 
"i,ppear  to  be  naturally  vigorous  and  especially  gifted  with  l)rain 
power.  The  di.stribution  of  these  races  is  a  purely  geogra])hical 
matter.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  treated  in  this  book,  because  the 
actual  degree  of  ability  among  different  races  when  placcil  in  the 
same  geograpliical  sui'rouiidings  and  given  exactly  \\\v  same  ojijwr- 
tunities  and  training  is  not  yet  accurately  known.  Much  of  what  is 
called  racial  character  is  due  to  the  next  item  untler  efficiencj^; 
namely,  health  and  energ\',  which  flepend  largely  on  climate,  but  arc 
in  lm"n  greatly  modified  l)y  ]K'o])!e's  habits  and  esi)ecia!ly  by  the  way 
in  which  they  spend  their  s])are  tijne,  that  is  by  their  recreations. 

{(I)  Ilidher  Needs. — \\iKit  man  gets  out  of  life  is  bettcM-  me;u<ured 
Vjy  the  way  he  supplies  his  liiglier  needs — mental,  esthetic  and 
spiritual — than  li>-  the  way  he  su])plies  his  malciiai  nceils.  I'lveiy 
group  of  people  has  at  least  an  elementaiy  form  of  government, 
education,  science,  religion,  and  art.  In  one  sense  these  things  are 
not  geographical.  Yet  the  diicction  which  they  take,  the  resources 
which  sui)pf)rt  lliem,  and  the  degree  of  efficiency  with  which  they 
are  developed  all  dei)enfl  largely  on  geographical  surroundings. 
Akhough  the  way  in  which  these  higher  needs  are  satisfietl  is  the  best 


HUMAN   GEOGRAPHY  7 

measure  of  ci\'ilization,  all  the  other  classes  of  responses  also  play  an 
important  part.  Civilization  rises  high  only  when  all  tlie  material 
needs  are  well  satisfied;  when  all  the  occupations  are  represented  in 
proper  proportion;  when  the  higher  nvcds  arc  recognized  as  even 
more  important  tlian  the  lower;  and  when  the  pursuit  of  both  the 
higher  and  the  lower  needs  is  carried  on  with  efficiency. 

(a)  How  Geographical  Surroiuidings  Influence  Man's  Material 
Needs. — In  order  thoroughly  to  understand  the  peo])]e  in  any  part  of 
the  world  we  need  to  be  al)le  to  answer  each  of  these  questions: 
What  do  they  eat?  How  do  they  dress?  What  kind  of  houses  do 
they  live  in?  What  tools  do  they  use?  How  do  they  travel  and 
transport  goods  from  place  to  place?  The  answers  depend  largely 
on  geographical  conditions.  Everyone  must  have  food,  but  the  man 
who  lives  on  a  certain  remote  island  in  an  unfrequented  sea  must 
live  largely  on  sago,  cocoanuts,  and  pork,  th.e  chief  products  of  his 
island,  for  the  location  is  too  remote  to  allow  him  to  get  food  from 
other  regions.  If  the  island  takes  the  form  of  mountains  perhaps  he 
may  not  be  able  to  raise  crops  easily;  while  the  body  of  water  aroimd 
him  may  cause  him  to  get  most  of  his  food  from  the  sea.  If  the  soil 
is  rich,  the  climate  warm  and  damp,  the  vegetation  luxurious,  and 
food  animals  relatively  few,  as  in  the  Philippines,  the  people  will  live 
on  rice  and  bananas;  but  if  the  soil  is  gravelly,  the  climate  dry,  the 
vegetation  merely  short-lived  grasses,  and  the  number  of  cattle 
relativeh"  large  we  shall  find  people  like  the  cowboys  of  western  Argen- 
tina who  dry  their  jerked  beef  in  the  sun,  and  eat  it  ^^•ith  corn  and 
beans. 

So,  too,  with  clothing  and  shelter.  Tlu»  thin  cot  Ion  clolliing, 
straw  sandals,  and  thatched  huts  of  the  Hindu  farmers  could  scarcely 
be  used  by  the  miners  of  Alaska  for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  jilace, 
it  is  not  easy  to  get  the  materials  for  such  clothing  and  shelter  in  the 
far  Norlli.  ;iiid  in  the  s(X'ond  i)lace,  even  if  they  could  ensily  be  pi-o- 
cured  they  would  not  afford  enough  pi'otection  from  the  weather. 
The  Yukon  miner  wants  clothing  of  fur  and  wool,  lu^avy  leather  boots,, 
and  a  warm  house  of  solid  logs  with  the  cracks  well  stuffed  to  keep 
out  the  cold.  The  tools  and  the  means  of  transportation  in 
India  and  Alaska  show  an  ecfual  diversity.  The  little  hoes,  wooden 
plows,  ox-goads,  and  rude  ox-carts  of  the  Hindu  faiiiier  would  be  of 
little  use  to  the  northern  jniner  who  wants  (hills,  hammers,  and  i)icks 
with  which  to  dig  into  the  solid  rock,  and  freight  cars  or  river  boats 
in  which  to  send  away  his  ore. 

(b)  How  GeograpJiiccd  Surroundings  Influence  the  Eight  Great 
Occupations. — In  supplying  their  material  needs  tlie  people  of  diff<M-ent 
parts  of  the  earth  generally  follow  the  occupations  in  which  il-eir 


8  M.WS    HKLA'I'IOX    TO    PH^SICAI.   KXVIHOXMKXT 

gcoprapliic  surrouiuliii^s  j^ivo  llioin  llic  jiioalcst.  ciiMnco  of  success. 
The  Pyjiiiiics  of  lh(>  delist'  forcsls  of  ("ciilral  Africa  aio  wamleriiifz; 
hunters  not  because  tlicy  clioosc  thai  occui)a1ion,  hut  because  no 
other  is  possil^le.  The  elimale  is  so  moisl  and  the  forest  so  dense 
that  tliey  cannot  ]iractic(>  aiiiicuhure;  the  water  bo(Hes  do  not  fur- 
nisli  any  great  amount  of  fisli:  callle  will  not  tlnive;  it  is  useless  to 
cut  lumber,  for  thei'e  is  no  maiket  for  it;  there  are  no  valuable  ores, 
or  else  they  are  so  covered  with  soil  that  no  one  lias  found  tliein,  and 
lience  there  is  no  minin<]!;;  and  more  advanced  occujxitions  sucli  as 
maiiufactuiiiiii;  and  commerce  arc  l)eyoiid  llie  capacity  of  people  who 
live  in  such  surroundintis. 

,  Similarly  on  the  Labrador  coast,  fishinii;  is  the  only  occupation 
which  furnishes  a  fairly  sure  livin<ii;,  and  (>V(M1  liiat  is  somelinics  pic- 
carious.  In  Sonora  in  northern  Mexico  the  climate  is  too  dry  for 
agriculture  in  many  sections,  but  cattle  can  live  on  the  short  grass 
even  though  it  dries  up  in  a  month  or  two.  Hence  the  people  are 
cattle  hei'ders. 

In  more  favored  regions  such  as  Denmark  the  levehiess  and  cli- 
mate and  the  absence  of  other  resources  cause  agriculture  to  l)e  the 
great  occupation. 

In  similar  fasliion  the  great  forests  are  almost  the  only  resource  of 
the  mountains  of  Western  Sweden,  so  that  the  inhabitants  have  to 
be  lumbermen,  just  as  in  Spitzl)ergen  the  low  temperature  and  the 
presence  of  rich  ores  make  mining  i)ractically  the  only  occupation. 
England  like  Spitzbergen  possesses  vahiable  minerals  in  the  shajX3 
of  beds  of  coal  and  iron,  and  these  not  only  foster  mining,  but  cause 
manufacturing  to  take  the  lead.  In  Holland,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
location  of  the  country  on  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhine,  between  Germany  and  hhigland,  raises  com- 
merce to  the  leading  position. 

Pennsylvania :  An  Example  of  Many  Occupations  in  One  Region. — 
In  the  more  advanced  parts  of  the  world  several  occupations  are 
always  carried  on  close  together.  One  simple  kind  of  occupation 
may  have  prc^vailt'd  at  first,  but  others  are  introduced  until  all  are 
rej)resented.  In  rennsylvania,  for  instance,  up  to  the  beginning 
of  the  last  centuiy  many  Imlians  lived  b-y  lumting  and  fishing,  and 
even  to-day  a  few  people  are  still  suppoited  exchisi\-ely  in  this  way. 
Some  of  the  early  colonists  lived  by  these  same  occupations,  but. 
most  of  them  at  once  began  lumbering  in  order  to  clear  the  land  for 
agiicullure.  l",\(ii  to-da>'  many  I'ennsylvaiiians  are  engaged  in 
lumbering,  although  this  occupation  is  negligible  comjxired  with 
farming  or  mining,  which  rose  to  great  importance  after  the  steam 
engine  was  invented.     The  life  of  the  farmers  differs  fron:  the  life 


f- 


HUMAN   GEOGRAPHY  9 

of  the  miners  as  much  as  if  the  two  lived  in  separate  countries.  After 
farming  and  mining  had  become  w(41  developed,  manufacturmg  and 
commerce,  whicli  had  formerly  existed  on  only  a  small  scale,  began 
to  be  the  occupations  of  large  numbers  of  people,  and  are  now  of 
great  importance.  Thus,  to-day  in  Pennsylvania,  hunting,  fishing, 
and  lumbering  are  each  represented  on  a  small  scale,  while  farming, 
mining,  manufacturing,  and  conmierce  arc  all  well  r(>presented.  Such 
a  development  of  many  occupations  is  characteiistic  of  advanced 
countries. 

(c)  How  Efficiency  Depends  on  Geographical  Surroundings. — The 
great  trouble  with  most  people  and  with  most  races  is  not  that  they 
do  not  have  ability,  but  that  thej^  do  not  make  the  most  of  what  they 
have.  They  are  lazy,  or  they  lack  will  power,  or  find  it  difficult  to 
concentrate  on  their  work.  Much  of  this  inefficiency  is  due  to  lack 
of  health  and  energy. 

Health  and  energy,  as  everyone  can  see,  are  largely  influenced 
by  people's  occupations  and  by  the  way  in  which  their  material  needs 
are  met.  Many  a  man  has  poor  health  because  he  eats  poor  food, 
or  eats  good  food  too  rapidly,  or  in  too  large  amounts.  Others  lack 
energy  because  they  dress  unwisely,  five  in  houses  that  are  not 
properly  ventilated,  use  machines  that  necessitate  unnatui-al  posi- 
tions, ride  too  much  in  automobiles,  or  follow  unhealthful  occupa- 
tions which  keep  them  in  offices  and  factories  instead  of  outdoors. 

These  reasons  for  lack  of  health  and  energy  are  closely  bound  up 
with  geography,  because  man's  occupations,  food,  clothing,  and 
shelter  all  depend  largely  on  jihysical  environment. 

Certain  geographic  conditions,  however,  have  a  much  more  direct 
effect,  and  are  so  powerful  that  not  even  the  strongest  races  have  yd 
learned  to  overcome  them.  For  example,  the  Dutch  ai-e  a  wonderful 
people,  possessed  of  fine  minds,  and  great  energ}^;  but  when  they  go 
to  such  places  as  Borneo,  where  the  climate  is  tropical,  they  soon 
cease  to  accomplish  as  much  ns  in  their  own  land,  for  they  suffer  in 
health  and  energ\\  This  is  due  not  only  to  distinct  diseases,  but  to 
the  direct  effect  of  climate,  as  we  ourselves  see  when  we  feel  dull  and 
listless  in  hot  weather.  Thus  it  appears  that  a  considerable  part  of 
what  we  call  the  character  of  a  race  or  nation,  by  which  we  often 
mean  their  efficiency,  depends  upon  geographical  surroundings. 

(d)  Why  Matins  Higher  Xccds  Depend  on  Geography. — That 
country  stands  highest  in  which  the  gi'eatest  number  of  people  take 
an  intelligent  and  active  interest  in  government,  education,  science, 
religion,  and  art.  These  nuvuis  of  satisfying  the  higher  necMJs  are 
much  influenced  by  geographic  surroundings  ev(>n  though  they 
also  depend  largely  upon  racial  character,  the  accidents  of  historical 


10         MAX'S  i{i:latr).\  to  rin-siCAL  KX\'nj()XM!:xT 

devclopniont .  aiul  the  presence  of  men  of  genius.  The  geographical 
infliU'iK'cs  acl  llirough  five  agencies:  (1)  density  of  i)opuIati()n;  (2) 
(l(>gree  oi  prosj>erily;  (3)  degree  of  isolation;  (4)  local  differences  in 
interests  or  resources,  and  (5)  degree  of  energy-. 

(1)  Hoic  Density  of  Population  is  Favorable  to  Ma7i's  Higher 
Needs. — Where  the  population  is  dense  people  can  easily  get  together 
and  talk  things  over;  thej'  can  all  be  within  the  reach  of  law  courts, 
election  ])laces,  schools,  churches,  and  ait  museums,  and  they  can 
learn  how  to  adapt  themselves  to  new  surroundings  much  more  easily 
than  can  people  who  are  scattered  in  small  groups  over  a  large  area. 
That  is  one  reason  wh}'  southern  Scotland  is  less  conserv'ative  and 
better  educated  than  the  northern  part  of  the  country.  Nevertheless 
the  peopl(>  of  \hv  North  maj-  be  even  more  competent  than  those  of 
the  South. 

(2)  Hoic  Prosperity  and  Poverty  Injlic^nee  the  Higher  Needs. — 
Where  favorable  surroundings  lilce  those  of  Indiana  make  a  com- 
munity rich  and  prosperous  it  can  afford  to  maintain  a  good  govern- 
ment, and  support  teachers,  scientists,  clergymen,  and  artists.  A 
region  like  eastern  Quebec  with  poorer  soil  and  a  less  favorable 
climate  cannot  afford  to  spend  so  much. 

(3)  Hoiv  Isolation  is  Unfavonible  to  Afan's  Higher  Needs. — China 
illustrates  the  effect  of  geographical  isolation  on  the  higher  activities. 
Although  Buddhism  came  from  India,  the  intervening  mountains 
have  prevented  the  two  countries  from  having  much  influence  on  one 
another.  The  sea  long  shut  China  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  Now, 
however,  the  old  isolation  is  breaking  down.  So  we  see  the  Chinese 
government  change  from  an  a])sohitc  monarchy  to  a  rcpu])lic;  the  old 
system  of  learning  by  rote  gives  place  to  study  for  the  purpose  of  learn- 
ing to  think;  wi-iting  with  thousands  of  difficult  characters  gives  place 
to  a  new  system  with  only  thirty-nine  lettei-s,  almost  as  simple  as  our 
own;  and  witchcraft  is  beginning  to  Ix;  replaced  by  scientific  medicine. 

(4)  Hoiv  Loeal  Cirenmstanees  Alter  the  Responses  to  Man's  Higher 
Needs. — Geographical  conditions  often  have  a  direct  effect  on  the 
nature  of  art,  religion,  govermiient,  educnlion,  and  other  i)hases 
of  civilization.  For  instance,  the  scatlercd  location  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  British  iMiipire  causes  llic  most  pi-ogi(>ssive  of  them  to 
be  far  iiioic  iiKlcpciiilcnl  tli;iii  me  llic  Stales  in  oiii'  own  couiitiy.  In 
the  sajiie  way  because  our  States  cover  a  huge  area  and  have  difrer(>iit 
climates  and  dilTerent  relations  to  the  sea,  they  can  be  joined  hapi)ily 
in  a  single  country  only  if  the  vaiious  parts  have  more  self-govern- 
ment than  have  the  provinces  of  l-Vance,  which  lie  close  together  and 
have  only  slight  divergences  of  interests.  Again  in  education,  con- 
trast the  great  number  of  trade  schools  in  England,  where  coal,  iron. 


HUMAN  GEOGRAPiri^  11 

and  other  factors  coin])ino  to  encourage  manufaeturinj]^,  willi  the 
schools  of  a  country  I'ke  Argentina,  where  sucli  subjects  find  no  place. 

So,  too,  Germany  has  turned  especially  to  chemistry  because  the 
presence  of  rich  deposits  of  unusual  minerals,  and  the  use  of  the 
beet  for  suga.r  gave  the  Germans  great  interest  in  that  science.  In 
like  fashion  the  English,  because  of  their  wide  use  of  the  sea,  have 
been  the  cliief  investigators  of  the  science  of  oceanography;  and 
California,  by  reason  of  its  clear  air,  holds  an  uncommonly  high  place 
in  astronomy. 

Eveiy  rehgion  is  at  least  modified  by  its  surroundings,  especially 
those  of  its  birthplace.  The  objects  of  worship  are  often  deter- 
mined by  geography.  In  India  where  the  coming  of  the  rain  is 
uncertain,  the  rain  god  is  one  of  the  chief  deities.  In  the  lofty  pla- 
teaus of  the  Central  Andes,  where  one  is  never  warm,  except  when 
actually  in  the  sunlight,  sun  worship  jjrevails.  In  Egj-pt  the  Nile 
was  once  an  object  of  rehgious  adoration,  since  the  Egyptians  knew 
that  their  very  lives  depended  upon  it.  The  fact  that  both  Judaism 
and  Christianity  sprang  from  a  dry  region  where  sheep  herding  is 
one  of  the  chief  occupations  is  evident  in  many  parts  of  the  Bible: 
"  I  am  the  good  shepherd  and  know  my  sheep."  "  The  shejiherd 
giveth  his  hfe  for  his  sheep."  ''  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd;  I  shall 
not  want.  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures:  He  leadeth 
me  beside  the  still  waters."  Such  quotations  reflect  the  chief  occu- 
pation of  Palestine. 

The  art  of  a  country  like  Japan,  where  wood,  silk,  and  copper 
are  abundant  and  easily  worked,  and  where  stone  cannot  readily  be 
procured,  is  bound  to  be  very  different  from  that  of  a  country  like 
Greece,  where  easily  worked  marl)l(>  is  far  more  common  than  good 
lumber,  and  where  there  is  little  silk  and  no  metals.  The  Ja])an(^se 
build  wooden  temples  with  pointed  roofs,  and  place  in  them  i)aintings 
on  silk  anrl  Buddhas  cast  in  bi'onze,  while  tlu^  Greeks  built  flat-roofed 
temples  of  stone  and  filled  them  with  marble  statues.  Not  only  the 
materials  used  in  art,  but  the  subjects  show  the  influence  of  environ- 
ment. In  Japan  v(ni(M-al)le  scraggly  pine  trees  and  symmetrical 
volcanoes  are  among  the  chief  subjects  of  art,  while  in  Egypt  the  lotus, 
a  water  lily  of  that  valk^y,  ])ecame  the  main  ornament  of  architcH'ture. 
Similarly  the  acanlhus  leaf  was  characteristic  of  th(^  art  of  Greece 
where  that  bold  handsome  plant  thiives  in  the  dry  soil.  Even  in  the 
most  progressive  countries  the  art  reflects  local  conditions. 

(5)  How  the  Higher  Needs  Res'pond  to  Energy. — Lastly,  the  degree 
of  perfection  to  which  a  country  carriers  its  governnuMit,  education, 
science,  nJigion,  and  aii,  dej^ends  largely  on  the  eiuM'gy  of  the  iieo]il(>; 
and  lliat,  as  we  lia\c  just  seen,  is  inllucnccd  moiv  l»y  climate  than  l)y 


12  MANS    UET.ATIOX    TO    PTTYSICAT.   FXVIROXMEXT 

:iuy  oilier  one  factor.  IIciu-o  ^ood-fiovcnunciil  clubs,  oducational 
societies,  scientific  associations,  j)lHlanlliroi)ic  orjianizations,  and 
musical  clubs  are  vastly  more  numerous  in  a  countiy  like 
Denmark,  with  a  slimuialiuii;  climate,  than  in  a  tr()])ical  counti'v  like 
Siajn. 

An  Example  of  Human  Geography:  Khirghiz  Nomads  of  Cen- 
tral Asia. — The  natui'e  of  human  {j;eograi)hy  inay  he  ilhisl rated  by  an 
e.xamjile.  Some  of  the  Khiif^hiz  of  Central  A.-^ia  are  wandering  herds- 
men, or  i)astoral  nomads,  who  live  in  the  {^reat  Tian  Shan  Plateau  of 
Central  Asia  in  sununer,  and  descend  to  the  \'alleys  and  llic  lowland 
plain  in  winter.  They  are  densely  ignorant  and  sujM'rslitious. 
So  low  are  they  in  the  scale  of  civilization  tliat  they  know  almost 
nothing;  of  manufacturing,  science,  and  art.  Their  furniture  consists 
of  little  except  bags,  sadtlles,  and  quilts.  They  eat  theii-  meals  with 
their  fingei's  from  the  connnon  dish  while  sitting  cross-legged  on  the 
bare  ground  oi*  on  the  woolen  rugs  which  are  almost  the  only  goods 
that  they  manufactuie.  Often  their  diet  for  months  consists  of 
sour  milk,  cheese,  and  meat  with  abnost  no  bread  and  no  vegetables 
or  fruit  of  any  desciiption.  Aecortling  to  our  standards  the  Khirghiz 
are  dirty,  lazy,  and  unprogressive.  Those  who  give  up  their  usual 
mode  of  life  and  settle  down  to  live  permanently  among  the  Russians 
of  Siberia,  become  still  woise,  for  they  begin  to  deteriorate  not  only 
in  character,  but  in  health.  To  offset  these  unfortunate  traits  the 
Nomadic  Khirghiz  aic  delightfully  hospitable,  quite  honest,  and  so 
bold  and  hai'dy  that  one  cannot  help  admiiing  tl-em. 

How  Their  Location  Isolates  the  Khirghiz.— In  saying  that  the 
Ivhirghiz  li\('  in  (Vntral  Asia  we  have  alread}'  stated  tlu>  main  fact 
as  to  their  location.  It  is  necessaiy  to  add  that  they  live  in  the 
"middle  latitudes,"  since  the  center  of  that  vast  continent  is  midway 
fnjjn  the  ('([uator  to  the  pole.  Nowheie  in  all  the  world  is  tlu^re  a 
region  moic  icmote  fiom  the  sea  and  fiom  all  the  broadening  influ- 
ences which  the  great  waters  carry  with  them.  On  the  south  the 
great  deserts  of  Chinese  Turkestan  and  the  huge  desolate  plat(>au  of 
Tibet  sei)arate  Ihc  Khiighiz  fiom  India  and  nil  outside  inlluences 
in  tliat  direction.  On  the  east  and  west  they  are  also  shut  in  by 
deserts  so  that  they  cojne  in  contact  only  with  nomads  like  them- 
selves— Mongols  on  one  side  and  Turkomans  on  lheolh<'r.  ( )nly 
toward  the  north,  where  the  desert  is  less  severe,  do  the  Khirghiz 
come  in  contact  with  a  civilized  ]M>oi)le,  the  Russians,  but  even  that 
contact  is  slight.  Thus  isolation  is  the  kej'note  of  the  Khirghiz 
local  ion. 

How  Plains,  Mountains,  and  Plateaus  Encompass  the  Khirghiz. — 
IJroad  plains  io  the  north  and  high  mountains  and  vast  plateaus  to 


HUMAN   GEOGRAPHY  13 

the  south  are  the  land  forms  anions  whicli  iho  Kliirghiz  have  their 
home.  It  is  a  womU^-fiil  expericnt-o  to  start  in  the  broad  plain  and 
ride  southward  on  horseback,  with  the  Kliirghiz.  At  first  the  ])lain  is 
almost  as  level  as  the  sea,  and  one's  vision  is  liniitcnl  only  by  the  un- 
broken horizon,  except  whei'e  distant  blue  mountains  l)reak  the  sk}'- 
line  far  to  the  south.  The  next  day's  march  l)rings  us  among  low 
hills;  then  the  hills  become  so  high  and  numc^rous  that  the  trail 
winds  up  a  valley  instead  of  going  straight  toward  its  destination. 
Only  after  several  tlays'  riding,  however,  does  it  enter  a  real  mountain 
valley,  where  the  cliffs  rise  steepty  on  each  side  and  1he  trail  can 
scarcely  find  a  foothold.  When  there  is  no  room  at  the  bottom  of 
the  valley,  it  nuist  zigzag  up  a  steep  rocky  slope,  where  a  mis-step 
or  an  unnoticed  ])it  of  ice  sometimes  sends  a  horse  tumbling  hun- 
dreds of  feet  into  the  river.  Finally,  the  valley  opens  out  into  a  fine 
plateau,  where  broad,  green  basin-shaped  i)lains  lie  pleasant h^  spread 
out  at  heights  of  8000  to  12,000  feet.  On  ever}'  side  rise  snow- 
covered  niountains,  wonderfully  tinted  with  blue  or  pink,  and  studded 
here  and  there  with  glaciers.  Such  are  the  wandering  places  of  our 
Khirghiz  nomads. 

The  Part  Played  by  Water  Bodies. — In  the  land  of  the  Khirghiz 
there  are  salt  lakes  such  as  Balkash  in  the  desert  lowland,  and  fresh 
water  lakes  of  rare  beauty,  such  as  Issik  Kul  among  the  mountains. 
These,  however,  have  little  effect  on  the  lives  of  the  nomads,  except 
that  certain  dry  lake  bottoms  furnish  salt.  Far  more  important  are 
the  rivers;  for  they  serve  as  drinldng  places  for  cattle  and  because 
they  have  carved  the  valleys  up  which  the  Khirghiz  climl:)s  to  the 
mountains.  Such  livers  are  very  hard  to  cross  when  the  snow 
is  melting  in  the  spring.  Sometimes  a  Khirghiz  horseman  tries  to 
cross  when  the  water  is  too  high;  his  horse  stmnbles  aniid  the  b()uld(M-s; 
and  horse  and  rider  are  swept  down  sevei-al  hundred  yai'ds  in  the  icy 
water,  and  are  fortunate  if  they  can  finally  scraiul)le  ashore.  S()nu>- 
times  the  streams  ctumot  be  crossed,  and  thus  the  trails  arc  forced 
high  up  the  mountain  sides. 

The  most  noticeable  habit  of  the  riv(M-s  is  the  suddenness  with 
which  the}'  rise.  By  night  in  siunmcr  the  mountains  ar(>  cold  and  no 
snow  melts,  so  that  in  the  morning  the  rivers  are  low.  By  day  there 
is  much  melting,  and  the  streams  sw(>ll  lapidly.  In  some  rivers  the 
flood  comes  down  at  a  regular  hour  each  day.  and  the  Khiighiz  urge 
their  hoi-s(>s  to  a  gallop  in  order  to  reach  the  ford  before  the  thick 
muddy  tide  of  melted  snow  cojnes  pouring  down. 

The  most  iinpoiiaiit  of  all  water  bodies  to  the  Khiighiz  are  the 
springs  beside  which  they  camp.  Among  the  mountains  these  are 
numerous.  Init  in  the  diy  lowlands,  far  from  the  rivers,  they  are  so 


14  MAN'S    In-.I.ATIOX    TO    PlIVSTrAL  F.WIKOXMKNT 

rare  as  t-o  l)i'  ^■<•I•v  precious.     In  siumiier  largo  .stretches  are  iniiii- 
lialiilalile  Itei-iuse  no  di-inkiiiir  water  is  oblainaMi*. 

Why  Soil  and  Minerals  Have  Little  Influence. — Neither  soil 
iKtr  minerals  have  much  effect  on  the  Khiij^hiz.  The  soil  is  excellent, 
hut  ils  use  is  limited  to  grass  since  tlie  climate  jirevents  the  p;ro^vth 
of  crops.  The  mineral  wealth  thus  far  discoveretl  shows  that  some 
day  it  nia>-  he  important,  but  isolation  has  kept  the  Khirghiz  so 
backward  that  they  have  not  yet  learned  to  use  the  miiuM-ais  of  their 
mountains. 

The  Nature  of  the  Climate. — The  Khii-ghiz  hve  so  remote  from 
th(^  ocean  that  the  winds  have  largely  lost  tb.eir  moisture  before  they 
penetrate  so  far  inland.  Hence  the  lowlands  are  barren  slcjjpes. 
Fortunately  what  precipitation  they  get  comes  in  smnmer  rather 
than  in  wntcr,  but  it  is  never  enough  to  support  agriculture.  The 
contiast  of  the  seasons  is  great,  for  the  summers  are  steadily  hot, 
wliile  the  winters  are  long  and  liitterly  cold  with  occasional  fierce 
wild  gales. 

Among  the  mountains  the  fall  of  snow  and  rain  is  jnuch  greater 
than  in  the  plains.  In  winter  the  mountains  are  so  cold  and  snowy 
that  no  one  can  \ixe  there.  In  summer  they  are  cool  and  wet,  but 
not  uni^leasant.  Frosts  may  occur  at  night  on  the  plateau  even  in 
July,  and  showers  are  fairly  common,  Iml  the  ])right  clear  days  during 
nnich  of  the  summer  are  delightful. 

How  the  Climate  Determines  the  Vegetation. — T1k>  plants  that 
flourish  in  a  climate  such  as  that  of  the  Khirghiz  are  limited.  In  the 
ilry  lowland  plains  there  is  a  fairly  good  growth  of  short  grass  dming 
tlie  sunnnC.r,  but  it  is  the  thin  grass  of  the  steppes  and  not  the  rich 
verdure  of  the  prairies.  AVhcrc  water  is  available  for  irrigation 
excellent  crops  can  be  grown,  but  such  places  are  too  rare  to  support 
any  great  number  of  jieoj^jle.  As  one  passes  from  the  treeless  grassy 
stepjies  into  the  mountains  a  fringe  of  willow  trees  is  often  seen  beside 
the  streams,  but  there  are  no  real  forests  nut  11  a  luMght  of  perhaps  0000 
feet  is  reached,  where  the  rainfall  is  suflicieiil  for  tree  growth.  Above 
that  for  about  2000  feet  the  slopes  are  clothed  with  pine  forests,  but 
the  total  area  of  these  is  insignificant,  for  the  heights  soon  become  too 
cold  for  trees.  Above  th(^  tree  line  grass  again  predominates.  This 
time  it  is  thicker,  and  more  turfy  than  that  of  the  lowlands.  It  is 
the  beautiful,  flower-studd(>d  grass  of  the  Alj^ine  lieights  for  which 
the  cool  wet  summer  is  ideal.  In  some  ])laces  it  grows  a  foot  or  more 
tall  and  is  full  of  daisies,  red  peonies,  and  other  bright  flowers.  Else- 
where it  is  .shorter  and  spangled  wit)i  thousands  of  wild  ixuisies. 
Finally,  near  the  snowline,  the  grass  gives  jilace  to  lichens  and  moss. 
Grass  is  the  dominant  vegetation  of  the  home  of  the  KJiirghiz. 


HUMAN  GEOGRAPHY  15 

The  Wild  Animal  Life. — In  the  steppes  of  southeni  Siberia  and 
the  plateau  of  Tian  Shan  where  the  Khir^Iiiz  have  their  home  there 
are  thousands  of  insects,  birds,  and  mammals,  but  only  a  few  which 
influence  the  hfe  of  man.  The  wild  animals  that  he  chiefly  notices 
in  the  lowlands  are  antelopes,  quail,  and  wolves.  Herds  of  ant(>lope 
browse  on  the  diy  grass.  The  quail  feed  on  seeds  and  are  themselves 
a  great  delicacy.  The  wolves  not  only  sometimes  stampede  the 
horses  that  are  turned  loose  at  night  to  feed  around  the  Khirghiz 
tents,  but  also  kill  many  lambs.  On  the  plateau  the  most  important 
wild  animals  are  two  that  live  on  the  rich  grass.  One  is  the  mountain 
sheep  with  its  enormous  curved  horns  six  or  more  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  base.  The  other  is  the  marmot,  a  small  animal  Uke  a  wood- 
chuck.  So  abundant  is  the  marmot  that  one  can  sometimes  count  a 
hundred  in  fifteen  minutes,  all  browsing  near  their  burrows  or  sitting 
up  attentively  on  their  hind  legs  beside  their  holes  and  ready  to  dive 
at  the  approach  of  danger. 

How  Man  Responds  to  Grasslands. — In  such  an  environment 
what  mode  of  life  should  we  expect?  In  other  words,  how  is  man  to 
get  a  living?  Since  grass  is  the  cliief  resource  the  best  way  is  to 
keep  domestic  animals  such  as  sheep,  cows,  horses,  or  camels.  Since 
each  family  needs  many  animals  the  grass  in  any  one  place  is  eaten 
up  in  a  month  or  two.  Moreover,  the  most  nutritious  grass  grows  in 
the  high  plateau  where  it  is  deeply  buried  in  snow  except  for  three 
or  four  months  in  summer.  Hence  the  most  practicable  mode  of  life 
is  pastoral  nomadism.  That  is,  the  Khirgliiz  must  keep  animals, 
and  drive  them  from  pasture  to  pasture.  In  summer  he  is  on  the 
high  plateaus  among  the  mountains  with  his  flocks  and  lierds,  but  as 
winter  approaches  the  animals  must  gradually  be  driven  downward 
to  the  lowest  valleys,  and  out  upon  the  plains  where  hay  has  been 
stored  and  where  relatively  permanent  camps  are  occupied  for  three 
or  four  months  in  mid-winter. 

Why  Animals  Furnish  Most  of  the  Food. — Such  being  their  mode 
of  hfe,  let  us  see  how  tlie  Khirghiz  resi:)ond  to  the  environment  in 
other  respects.  Why  is  their  diet  so  largely  limited  to  milk,  cheese, 
and  meat? 

Since  the  summers  are  too  cold  for  gardens,  vegetables  are  ahnost 
unknown.  IMcat,  too,  is  by  no  means  eaten  regularly,  as  one  might 
supix)se.  Some  of  the  j'oimg  animals  that  grow  up  each  year  must 
be  kept  to  increase  the  flock,  and  replace  those  lost  in  storms  or 
eaten  by  wolves.  Most  of  the  rest  must  be  exchanged  for  flour,  cloth, 
knives,  or  other  necessities.  Hence  onlj^  a  few  can  be  eaten.  Milk  is 
the  staple  food.  Part  of  it  is  made  into  butter  or  hard  sour  cheese, 
and  kept  for  weeks  or  months.     The  rest  is  used  at  once,  but  not  till 


16  MAN'S   l^FLATIOX   'I'o   I'lIVSirAL  EXVTROXMEXT 

it  ]i;is  Ix'coino  scnir.  Tlic  Kliir<iliiz  liave  learned  lli;i1  if  milk  is  used 
in  hiijzc  (luantitics.  it  is  n:i:'.'h  more  healthful  sour  than  fresh. 

To  many  a  Khirjihiz  hoy  or  {lirl  l)r(>a(l  is  as  n:uch  a  luxuiy  as  is 
eakc  to  a  ehild  in  America.  '1  lie  fjoui'  must  \>v  hroujiht  lonfi;  distances 
on  hor.'^es  or  camels.  Tlie  supply  may  be  exhausted  lonjj;  before  the 
suinjner  stay  in  the  ir.ountains  is  over.  A  J\hiiu;hiz  mother  often 
takes  preat  pains  to  stow  liei'  little  s1or(>  of  bread  wheiv  the  cliihhcn 
will  not  find  it  and  be  temi)ted  to  eat  it  without  permission.  As  there 
is  no  fuel  except  dry  <2;rass  or  the  dried  dunfr  of  aniinals,  and  as  stoves 
ai'e  too  lieavy  to  l)e  easily  1i;ins])()i-1e(l,  ilie  bicad  is  baked  in  thin 
sheets  over  open  fires,  or  perhaps  the  dough  is  cut  into  cubes  and 
boiled  in  fat  like  doufihnuts. 

The  Relation  of  Clothing  to  Environment. — The  clotliing  of  the 
Khir<r;hiz  is  fitted  for  life  in  the  cool  damp  mountains  in  summer 
and  in  the  cold  lowlands  in  winter.  At  all  seasons  both  men  and 
women  wear  thick  i)added  ti'owns  that  shed  l]ie  lain,  and  hiuli  boots 
for  walkiufi;  in  the  wet  grass  and  among  the  cattle.  Much  of  their 
clothing  is  made  from  the  wool  of  tlieir  sheej)  and  the  skins  of  their 
animals  The  men  wear  grcvit  cai)s  of  sheepskin  with  the  wool  on 
the  outsitle,  and  everyone  has  a  sheepsldn  coat  made  so  that  it  can 
be  woi"n  with  the  wool  in  or  out  according  to  the  weather.  The 
women  wear  head  (•()\-erings  of  col  Ion  ciotli  fiom  Russia.  They 
Vind  long  embroidei-ed  stiij^s  into  head-dresses  a  foot  high.  Both 
nen  and  wom(>n  keep  their  hands  warm  and  dry  by  means  of  sleeves 
ihat  extend  down  a  foot  or  so  l)elow  the  hands.  It  is  amusing  to 
watch  them  thi'ow  back  their  sleeves  when  they  eat,  or  ])egin  to  work. 
Tlie  necessity  of  selling  aniinals  to  obtain  cloth  for  clothing  is  one  of 
the  chief  reasons  for  what  little  coinnierce  th(M'e  is  among  the  Khii-ghiz. 

The  Movable  Homes  of  the  Ncmads. — Peoi)le  who  frequently 
migiate  must  use  a  shelter  that  can  readily  be  taken  down,  packed  on 
animals,  and  set  up  in  a  new  site.  A  tent  is  adniiably  adapted  to 
such  purjjoses.  'i'he  tent  of  the  Khirghiz  is  round  and  covered  with 
a  thick  felt  made  from  the  wool  of  their  sheep.  A  folding  lattice 
fence  of  willow  fniiiis  a  cii'cle  IweK'e  to  fifteen  feel  in  diameter. 
I''rom  the  top  of  this,  light  i)oIes  coiiA-erge  U|)ward  toward  a  large 
circular  opening.  Over  the  frani(>-woik  thus  foiined,  the  felts  arc 
smoothly  stretched,  and  aic  most  elTe(•(i^•e  in  keejiing  out  cold,  rain, 
and  wind. 

The  Tools  of  Pastoral  Nomads.  T'ndcM-  the  heading  tools  we 
inrluile  not  only  oidinaiT  tools,  bnl  all  kinds  of  iiiiplenients,  utensils, 
and  even  machines — in  fact  everything  that  ])eople  make  in  order  to 
hel]i  themselves  in  some  occu])alion.  Since  all  of  a  family's  goods  are 
carried  (jn  the  backs  of  animals  eveiy  few  weeks,  especial  kinds  of 


HUMAN   GEOr.RAPHY 


17 


18 


MAX'S    i;i:i.ATI()X    TO    PIIVSirAL   ENVIRONMENT 


utensils  arc  needed.  China  dishes  arc  too  breakable  and  metal  bowls 
loo  h(>avy.  Therefore,  milk,  cheese,  and  butter  arc  kept  in  whole 
sheepskins  partial]}'  tanned,  ^^'hen  the  faniil}'  sits  down  to  a  meal  a 
great  wooden  bowl  holds  the  sour  milk,  soup,  or  meat.  As  foiks  and 
spoons  cannot  easily  be  made  and  arc  a  luxury  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  Khirfihiz,  eveiyone  eats  with  his  fingers  from  the  same  dish. 
Since  furniture  is  too  awkward  and  hca\y  to  be  transportetl  on  the 
backs  of  animals,  rugs  fi-om  the  wool  of  the  sheep  take  the  place  of 
chairs,  tables,  and  betls. 


Fig.  3. — Erecting  a  Turkoman  Tout  in  Transfii-'^pia. 
The  Turkomans,  like  their  Khirghiz  neighbors,  live  in  round  felt  tents  that  can  be 

easily  set   up. 


How  the  Khirghiz  Family  Moves. — A  Khirghiz  migration  is  an 
interest  ing  siglil .  At  dawn  a  group  of  t(Mi1s  stands  on  the  gi'eeii  turf 
at  tlie  l»as(!  of  a  high  clilT.  An  liour  latei'  tlie  tetit:^  have  been  pulled 
down  b}'  the  women,  while  the  men  have  started  on  tlie  day's  journey 
with  th(>  slow-moving  sho(>p.  A  five-year  old  child  leads  a  snarling 
camel  to  the  pile  of  felts,  poles,  and  lattice  where  his  mother  has  just 
jnilled  down  the  tent.  A  jerk  on  the  rope  tied  to  a  pin  in  the  crea- 
ture's nose  makes  it  kneel  in  s)iite  of  its  fierce  snarls.  The  mother 
ami  all  (ild'T  boy  tie  the  tent  ])oles.  a  ])ox  or  two,  and  some  bags  and 
rugs  on  the  animal's  back.     A  big  sister  fastens  some  wooden  bowls 


HUMAN  GEOGRAPHY  19 

and  some  sheepskins  of  sour  milk  and  cheese  on  one  side,  and  on  the 
other  ties  the  baby's  cradle.  The  baby  is  put  into  the  cradle,  a  big 
rug  is  tied  firmly  over  it,  and  the  camel,  grunting  and  complaining, 
is  led  away  to  take  his  place  at  the  head  of  a  string  of  other  camels. 
The  mother  and  all  the  cliildren  down  to  the  five-year  old  j'oungster 
follow  on  horseback.  By  nightfall  the  tents  are  set  up  ten  or  fifteen 
miles  away  and  the  new  encampment  looks  as  comfortable  as  the  old. 

The  Work  of  Cattle  Herding.— The  life  of  the  cattle  herder  is 
sometimes  easj"  and  at  others  very  strenuous.  Some  of  the  men  go 
out  with  the  sheep  and  sit  around  all  day  doing  nothing  except 
occasionally  bring  back  a  straying  sheep.  Others  on  horseback, 
round  up  the  cattle  or  yaks  to  see  if  all  are  on  hand  and  perhaps  to 
pick  out  one  for  sale ;  still  others,  with  nooses  tied  to  the  end  of  what 
look  like  fishing  poles,  gallop  off  to  catch  horses  when  more  are  needed. 

Occasionally,  however,  the  Khirghiz  must  ride  all  day  to  recover 
stray  animals.  Wolves  must  sometimes  be  fought,  while  during  the 
great  snow  storms  the  sheep  must  be  carried  to  safety,  one  by  one. 
Thus  the  Khirghiz  men  are  forced  to  tremendous  exertions  for  a  while. 
They  come  back  to  the  tents  so  tired  that  they  Me  down  and  do  almost 
nothing  for  daj^s.  As  the  women  milk  the  animals  and  do  all  the 
routine  work  the  occupation  of  herding  tends  to  make  the  men  lazy. 
They  laugh  at  the  danger  of  fording  a  roaring  torrent,  which  makes  the 
city  man  pale,  but  they  do  not  know  how  to  stick  to  hard,  steady 
work,  for  their  occupation  does  not  require  it. 

Why  Manufacturing  and  Commerce  are  Backward.— This  lack  of 
steadfastness,  the  difficulties  of  tranpportation,  the  isolation,  and 
the  lack  of  other  incentives  cause  Khirgliiz  industries  and  commerce 
to  be  poorly  developed.  The  women  weave,  or  rather  knot,  beautiful 
rugs  of  wool,  which  are  prized  even  in  Europe  and  America  for  their 
harmonious  colors  and  pleasing  patterns.  The  women  also  make 
gay  felts  by  beating  wool  of  various  colors  into  a  firm  waterproof 
mass;  the  skins  of  animals  are  tanned;  and  a  few  other  sbnple  opera- 
tions are  carried  on.  From  the  materials  available  to  pastoral 
nomads,  the  Khirghiz  make  the  things  that  they  need  and  can  easily 
carry,  but  that  is  the  limit  of  industrial  development. 

Commerce  is  equally  backward.  In  the  autmnn  droves  of  sheep, 
horses,  and  camels,  and  perhaps  a  few  cattle  are  driven  to  a  distant 
town  for  sale.  Flour,  cloth,  guns,  and  othcM-  small  articles  are  brought 
back.  Even  in  these  simple  transactions — their  only  commercial 
dealings — the  nomads  are  frequently  cheated  by  the  city  men,  for 
though  the  Khirghiz  daie  traverse  the  most  narrow  and  dangerous 
trails,  their  daily  life  gives  them  no  skill  in  the  art  of  buying  and 
selling. 


20  M.WS   RELATION   TO   PHYSICAL   EXVIROXMEXT 

Are  the  Khirghiz  Efficient? — It  is  not  easy  to  nioasure  the 
efficiency  of  the  KJiir^hiz.  So  fai-  as  we  can  dctcrnnne,  the  Turanian 
race  to  wliicli  they  Ix'lona;  piohalily  stands  lower  in  mental  power 
than  does  either  the  wliite  race  or  the  yellow  Monfi;olian  race  to 
which  the  Chinese  belong.  We  have  seen  also  that  their  occupation 
tends  to  make  the  Khiiirhiz  la/y  and  ineffici(Mit-.  As  to  health  no 
figures  are  availaMc,  hut  the  Kliiij^liiz  an-  |)r()l)al)ly  not  lonp;-lived. 
They  seem  stroiiu  and  liearty,  however,  and  the  outdoor  occupation 
of  both  men  and  women  as  well  as  the  life  in  the  open  tents  is  certainly 
beneficial.  How  valuable  these  are  is  evident  when  the  Khiighiz 
move  to  tlie  Russian  villajies  and  live  in  close  stuffy  houses.  I'nder 
sucli  circuuistanccc  their  health  suffers  at  once.  Even  when  living 
out-of-doors  the  Khirghiz  have  some  disadvantages.  The  winter 
Ls  so  long,  cold,  and  monotonous,  that  it  saps  th.eir  vitality.  Little 
fires  of  the  dried  dung  of  cattle  are  the  onl}'  help  against  the  cold. 
The  cool  suininci',  however,  is  ex( cllc^nt,  except  that  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  exiK)sure  to  dampness  and  chills. 

The  Exhilarating  Recreation  of  the  Herders. — That  the  Khir- 
ghiz are  strong,  hardy  people  is  evident  from  their  favorite  games. 
In  one  of  these  the  players  are  on  h.ors(>back.  Their  oliject  is  to  see 
who  can  skin  a  dead  calf  and  cany  off  the  hide  in  spite  of  the  attempt 
of  the  others  to  pull  it  away  and  skin  it  them. selves.  At  first  the 
calf  is  thrown  on  the  ground  in  the  midst  of  a  circle  of  riders.  At  the 
word  eveiyone  whips  liis  hors(^  into  the  center  and  all  lean  over  and 
try  to  pick  up  the  dead  animal.  The  ouv  wjio  liually  gets  it  darts  out 
of  the  jilunging,  kicking  group  of  hors(>s,  throws  his  leg  over  the  calf 
and  whips  out  liis  knife  to  begin  skinning  it  as  he  rides.  The  liorses 
gallop  furiouslj'-,  the  men  shout  wildly,  and  one  thinks  that  half  the 
band  of  riders  will  be  killed.  I'inally  a  skillful  rival  ovei'takes  the 
leader,  yanks  the  calf  from  under  Jiis  leg,  and  goes  on  with  the  skin- 
ning. The  same  thing  soon  happens  to  the  rival;  and  so  it  goes  until 
someone  daics  galloji  down  a  trea.cherous  slope  or  foid  a  rushing 
river,  and  thus  gel  far  enougli  away  from  the  rest  to  pull  the  skin  off, 
and  llius  win  the  prize.  Such  a  game  is  as  good  a  recreation  as  could 
be  devised,  for  it  gives  health,  strength,  and  good  sport,  and  also 
efficiency  in  the  hardest  j^art  of  the  herdei-'s  occuiiation. 

How  Environment  Influences  the  Higher  Needs  cf  the  Khirghiz. — 
Where  geogia|)hical  coiKhtions  cause  nomadic  hei'ding  to  be  the 
chief  occui)ation,  man's  higher  needs  are  usually  neglected.  Thus 
the  Khiighiz,  secure  in  their  remote  grasslands,  pay  little  attention 
to  the  central  government.  If  a  ciime  is  coimnitted,  if  a  feud  l)r(>aks 
out,  or  if  a  new  trail  is  needed,  they  take  the  matter  into  their  own 
hands.     In  each  group  of  relatives  who  pitch  their  tents  together  the 


HUMAN  GEOGRAPHY  21 

oldest,  or  the  most  competent  of  the  older  men  is  the  chief  or  patri- 
arch. He  rules  by  his  sense  of  justice  and  by  the  dictates  of  custom 
instead  of  by  written  laws  such  as  we  submit  to. 

Among  nomads  like  the  Khirghiz  education  and  science  are  even 
less  developed  than  govermiient.  The  individual  communities  are 
too  small  to  have  schools.  The  absence  of  contact  with  outside 
people  and  their  own  lack  of  inquisitiveness  prevent  the  Khirghiz 
from  making  scientific  discoveries.  In  religion  they  are  content  to 
follow  many  Mohammedan  customs,  but  are  too  isolated  to  get  any 
new  ideas  or  even  to  follow  fully  the  practices  of  other  Mohammedans, 
Art  finds  ahnost  its  only  chance  for  expression  in  the  woolen  rugs, 
bags,  and  felts  which  the  Khirghiz  use  for  many  purposes.  Thus 
civilization  remains  stationary.  The  Khirghiz  are  not  savages,  but 
the  gulf  between  them  and  the  more  enlightened  nations  is  growing 
wider.  The  influence  of  European  civilization  has  begun  to  reach 
them,  but  their  mode  of  life  will  probably  change  only  a  httle  so 
long  as  they  depend  chiefly  upon  the  grass  of  the  plains  and  high 
plateaus. 

Geography  and  other  Influences. — In  spite  of  its  great  impor- 
tance, as  illustrated  Ijy  the  life  of  the  Khirghiz,  we  must  think  of 
geography  as  only  one  of  the  factors  that  influence  human  character. 
Some  persons  are  born  with  high  abihty  and  some  without.  A  man 
of  great  energy  and  a  fine  mind  even  in  a  del^litating  climate  far  from 
educational  advantages  and  other  opportunities,  is  worth  more  than 
a  weak  stupid  man  who  lives  in  the  most  favorable  place  in  the  world. 
Even  an  apparently  dull  boy  who  has  the  detennination  to  make 
hunself  of  value  will  succeed  better  in  a  poor  environment  than  will 
a  l)nght  boy  who  lives  amid  better  surroundings,  but  has  not  the  will 
to  live  up  to  high  ideals.  So,  too,  the  right  kind  of  government,  a 
good  education,  or  a  religion  which  leads  people  to  serve  the  public 
instead  of  seeking  their  own  petty  ambitions  ma^-  make  people 
amount  to  more  in  a  poor  enviromnent  than  in  a  good  one  without 
such  influences.  Moreover,  mankind  is  constantly  learning  to  over- 
come the  influence  of  unfavorable  circumstances,  and  is  even  caus- 
ing them  to  help  him.  Tlius  although  good  gergi'aphicnl  surround- 
ings are  highly  (lcsira])le,  it  must  conslantly  be  renicmlKn-ed  that 
they  are  only  one  of  the  great  factois  which  determine  the  progress  of 
a  nation. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES  AND  PKOIUJIMS 

1.  Write  a  dcscriijtion  of  your  homo  rojiion  on  llir  model  of  tlic  K'liiruliiz. 

2.  Compare  tlie  iiulustries  and  recreation  of  tlic  ])imi|i1c  wlm  ii\-('  in  \dur  State 


22  MAX'S   RELATION'   TO    IMIVSICAL  ENVIIIOXMEXT 

with  Ihoso  of  the  Kliirphiz.  or  snmo  otlirr  pooiilo.  What  aro  the  (jualifies  of  mind 
and  body  di'veh)|H'd  in  i'a(  li  \>y  the  activities  of  daily  hfc? 

3.  Cljissify  the  twelve  chief  raw  materials  used  for  the  food  and  clothing  of  the 
people  of  your  home  town  according  to  (a)  whether  they  are  animal,  vegetable, 
or  mineral,  (b)  whether  they  are  imi)orts  or  domestic  iiroducts. 

4.  Compare  the  geographic  environment  of  Joseph  and  his  brethren  in  Egj-pt 
with  that  of  their  Jewisli  descendants  of  the  East  Side  of  Xew  York.  Point  out 
how  this  would  cause  diflerences  in  respect  to  the  huuiaii  responses  included  under 
{a)  material  needs,  {b)  occupations,  in  Fig.  1. 

5.  \\'rite  a  comivirison  of  Figs.  2  and  3,  in  order  to  show  what  these  two 
tj'pes  of  dwellings  illustrate  a.s  to  the  effect  of  environment  on  («)  occujiation; 
(6)  raw  materials,  (c)  methods  of  hoase  building. 

0.  Select  some  backward  region  that  especially  interests  you  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  ( )n  the  basis  of  your  own  knowledge  and  of  accounts  in  encyclopaedias, 
refi'rence  books,  books  of  travel  and  magazine  articles,  write  a  geograjihical  de- 
scription. ITsc  the  Khirghiz  as  a  model.  Pick  out  the  most  important  features  of 
the  geograjihic  environment  and  treat  them  with  special  fullness. 

7.  Select  some  jirogressivc  region  and  treat  it  in  the  same  way.  As  you 
treat  the  different  topics  explain  why  in  some  of  llicm  progressive  people  arc  much 
more  difficult  to  describe  than  uuprogrcssive. 


PART  II 

MAN'S  RELATION    TO  LOCATION 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  EFFECT   OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  MOTIONS 

The  Earth  as  a  Globe. — In  the  diagram  on  page  3,  location  stands 
first  because  upon  it  depend  a  great  many  other  geographical  condi- 
tions such  as  distances  and  cHmate.  The  only  possible  way  of  stating 
the  location  of  a  place  is  by  gi\ang  its  position  in  reference  to  some- 
thing else.  The  fact  that  the  earth  is  a  rotating  globe  is  highly  impor- 
tant in  this  respect,  for  it  means  that  the  earth  has  two  fixed  points, 
the  poles,  whose  position  can  be  determined  with  absolute  precision 
and  in  reference  to  which  all  other  positions  can  be  fixed.  The 
equator,  for  example,  is  merely  an  imaginary  line  half  way  l)etween 
the  poles. 

The  evidence  that  the  earth  is  a  globe  is  abundant.  The  hull  of 
a  distant  ship  disappears  before  the  sails  or  smoke  stacks.  Hence 
the  intervening  surface  must  be  curved.  The  altitude  of  the  stars 
changes  by  a  practically  uniform  minilx'i-  of  degrees  for  each  himdred 
miles  that  one  travels  northward  or  southward.  This  is  j)ossible 
only  on  a  globular  earth.  Moreover,  thousands  of  people  hav(^ 
actually  gone  around  the  glo])e  in  many  diffcreiit  directions  since 
Magellan's  first  circumnavigation. 

The  evidence  that  the  earth  rotate:-  on  an  axis  is  not  so  clear  as 
the  evidence  that  it  is  a  globe.  The  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  to  be  sure, 
rise  and  set  as  if  the  earth  rotated,  but  tliis  might  be  because  each 
heavenly  body  revolves  around  the  earth,  as  was  supposed  by  the 
ancients.  So  fiiinly  was  this  idea  established  that  when  Galileo 
announced  that  \ho  earth's  rotation  accounts  for  day  and  night  and 
llie  rising  and  selling  of  the  stais,  he  risked  violent  persecution  and 
even  death.  One  of  tlie  most  couAiiiciiig  jH'oofs  that  the  eai'th  rotates 
is  the  course  of  a  ball  dropped  fiom  a  grcvit  height.  Barring  a  slight 
deflection  due  to  the  varying  density  of  different  jiarts  of  tiie  earth,  a 
plumb  UnesuspcMK  led  fi-om  a  lofty  st  met  ui-e  such  as  the  I'itTel  Tower  in 

23 


24 


MANS  i;i;i.Ari()N  to  location 


jlorth  Pot, 


I'aris  pdiiils  st raitilil  towai'il  the  cailh's  cciitcr.  If  a  liall  lie  dioppcd 
from  till-  point  (tf  sus|)ciisi(tn.  it  will  not  stiikc  the  caitli  at  the  point 
t  )\vai'.l  which  the  |)hiinl)  line  was  (hicctiMl,  luit  an  iix'h  of  nioic  to  the 
cast.  During  tlic  few  seconds  while  1  he  hall  i>  fallinti,  holh  hall  and 
earth  move  eastward  hy  rotation.  The  hall  falls  perfectly  straifiht, 
l)ut  it  lias  an  eastward  motion  ^ireatcr  than  that  of  the  point  below  it. 
The  Meaning  of  Latitude  and  Longitude. — The  relation  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude  to  the  lilohulai-  huni  and  lotation  of  the  earth 
ma\-  he  illustrated  hy  an  umhrella.  The  handle  represents  the 
eai'th's  axis  u!)on  which  lotation  takes  place.  It  jxasses  through  the 
cloth  at  the  pole,  while  the  lower  edge  of  the  cloth,  if  it  were  straight 
instead  of  scalloped,  would  represent  the  ecjuator.  The  ribs  represent 
meridians  hy  which  lonjiitude.  oi-  angular  distance  cast  or  west,  is 
measured.  Circles  parallel  to  the  mnl)rella's  lower  edge  would  cor- 
respond to  the  parallels  by  which  latitude,  or  angular  distance  north 
or  south  is  measured.  If  a  marked  rib  serves  as  the  pi'ime  meridian 
of  London,  the  puyitiun  -A  any  point  on  the  umbrella  may  be  indicated 

as  so  many  degrees  of  longitide  east  or 
west  of  the  ]irime  meridian,  and  so 
many  degrees  of  latitude  from  the  equa- 
tor. All  these  relationships,  as  they 
appear  upon  a  globe,  are  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

Although  latitude  and  longitude  arc 
angular  distanc(»s  they  can  readily  be 
converted  into  distances  in  mil(>s  pro- 
vided the  size  of  the  globe  is  known. 
The  length  of  a  degi-ee  of  latitude  is 
everywhei'e  about  (1!)  miles,  while  a 
(l{'gl'(>c  of  longitude  has  the  same  length 
at  the  ('(luatoi-,  but  decicases  steadily 
until  it  ])ecomes  nothing  at  the  i)()les  where  the  meridians  con- 
vei-g(^ 

The  distinction  between  longit 
j-enieinbered  by  bearing  in  mind 
180°,  but  is  the  lonij  dimension  of  the  Me<lit(>rranean  Sea  where 
the  terms  were  Hrst  used.  Latitude  luns  only  to  90°.  The  word 
comes  from  the  Latin  for  "  wide,"  meaning  the  width  of  the  Medi- 
t-eri'anea  n. 

Another  |)oint  to  renieinbei'  is  that  hiuli  latitudes  are  not  only 
designated  by  high  iiiimheis  both  north  and  south  of  the  ecjuator, 
but  are  those  which  would  be  Inghest  on  the  umbrella  of  our  illus- 
tration. The  continent  of  Antarctica  is  in  high  Latitudes,  while 
Ecuador,  which  means  ]']{juator  Country,  is  in  low  latitudes.     Our 


Fig-  4. — Latitude  aiul  Long- 
itude un  a  Globe. 


ude   and   latitude   can   easily   be 
hat    longitude    notonly    runs  to 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  MOTIONS         25 

own  country  is  in  the  middle  latitudes,  which  are  Ihe  best  parts  of 
the  world. 

A  good  example  of  the  use  of  latitude  and  louiiitude  is  the  way  it 
enables  ships  at  sea  to  state  their  exact  position.  When  the  Lusitania, 
for  example,  was  torpedoc'd  b}'  a  German  submarine  in  1915,  it  sent 
out  a  wireless  message  tliat  it  was  in  51°  N.  latitude,  9°  W.  longitude. 
Instantl}'  the  ships  recei\ing  the  message  hastened  to  the  exact  sjxjt 
even  though  it  was  far  ])eyond  their  vision.  Though  the  Lusitania 
sank  in  twenty  minutes  many  people  were  saved.  An  airplane  in 
crossing  the  ocean  asks  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  every  shi[)  that 
it  passes,  in  order  that   the  aviators  may  knoNN-  just  where  they  are. 

How  Time  is  Determined. — In  order  to  ascertain  the  location  of  a 
place  on  the  earth's  suiface,  time  as  well  as  latitude  and  longitude 
must  be  employed. 

The  sun  is  the  natural  time-keeper  for  all  the  world.  Wlien 
people  first  made  careful  measurements  of  time  they  based  their 
reckonings  on  the  hour  at  which  the  shadow  cast  by  the  sim  is  shoi'test. 
This  gave  the  simplest  form  of  "  local  "  time,  but  it  was  ultimately 
found  that  the  days  measured  in  this  way  vary  in  length,  because 
of  the  earth's  vaiying  rate  of  motion  around  the  sun.  By  mak- 
ing corrections  on  this  basis,  they  obtained  what  is  called  "  mean  " 
time,  according  to  which  twelve  o'clock  is  the  average  time  at  which 
the  sun  reaches  its  highest  point  throughout  the  year.  ^Phis  was  an 
imjiortant  step.  Today,  however,  local  mean  time  is  rarely  used  in 
progressive  regions.  It  is  not  convenient  in  these  days  of  railroads, 
automobiles,  air  planes  and  i'ai)id  trav(>l,  for  no  two  places  have  the 
same  local  time  unless  they  happen  to  be  on  the  same  meridian. 
Wlien  railroads  were  introduced  each  raih'oad  used  the  time  of  the 
city  where  its  liead(|uarlei's  wow  located.  At  raih'oad  junctions 
there  thus  were  often  ditter(Mit  times.  In  one  town //re  systcMus  were 
in  use  as  late  as  ISSO,  while  in  the  United  States  as  a  whole  the  rail- 
roads ran  on  53. 

To  oiniate  this  confusion  the  ]:)resent  system  of  "  standard  "  time 
was  adopted  with  only  four  l)el1s.  Thes(>  belts  are  based  on  longitude. 
Since  the  eai'lli  lotates  15°  an  hour,  the  laili'oads  in  IS83  agreed 
to  use  only  the  k)cal  i'unc  of  cei-tain  "  standard  "  in(>i-idians  that 
are  multiples  of  15°.  Tiie  countr}'  is  divided  into  belts  lying  on 
either  side  of  these  inciidians. 

The  most  easterly  belt  uses  the  time  of  the  mei-idian  75°  west  of 
Greenwich.  Eastern  Time,  as  it  is  called,  is  thei{>foi-e  five  hours 
behind  that  of  London.  The  next,  oi'  nHlnil  liinr  belt,  uses  the 
time  of  tli(^  OOlii  niei-idian,  six  houi's  Ix'hind  London :  wiiilc  the  moun- 
tain time  of  the  105th  meridian  and  (he  Pacific  time  of  the  12()th  are 


26 


MAX'S  HI:LA'I"I().\  to  locatiox 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTHS  FORM  AND  MOTIONS        27 

respectively  seven  and  oiolit  hours  behind  London.  This  sj'stem  is 
very  convenient,  for  people  do  not  need  to  change  their  watches  ex- 
cept on  passing  from  one  belt  to  another,  and  then  the  change  is  al- 
ways exactly  one  hour.  The  standard  time  belts  of  the  United  States 
are  shown  in  Fig.  5.  As  the  raih'oads  prefer  to  change  time  at  division 
points  where  new  trains  are  made  up,  rather  than  in  the  middle  of 
long  runs,  the  belts  are  irregular  in  shape. 

How  Travelers  Gain  or  Lose  Time. — On  a  journey  around  the 
world  the  time  changes  twenty-four  hours.  In  1519  Magellan  left 
Spain  with  five  ships  to  make  the  first  voj'age  round  the  world.  AVhcni 
his  sole  surviving  vessel  reached  Spain  three  years  later  the  crew 
cound  not  understand  whj'  their  reckoning  made  the  date  September 
6,  while  the  people  at  home  said  it  was  September  7.  No  mistake 
could  be  found  in  the  ship's  records,  and  the  travelers  were  much 
puzzled  until  Paoli  Sarpi  told  them  that  during  their  adventurous 
voyage  they  had  lost  a  day  by  going  around  the  world  with  the  sun. 
If  they  had  gone  eastward,  they  would  have  gained  a  day,  and  would 
have  recorded  the  date  of  their  return  as  September  8. 

The  explanation  is  simple.  Suppose  a  traveler  starts  from  London 
at  noon  on  Monday,  and  travels  westward  at  the  rate  of  15°  a  day. 
Since  15°  of  longitude  are  equal  to  an  hour  of  time,  the  sun  at  the 
second  noon  will  reach  the  zenith  an  hour  later  than  at  London. 
Therefore  at  noon  by  the  sun  on  Tuesday,  the  traveler's  watch  will 
say  1  P.M.,  and  he  will  have  to  set  it  back  an  hour  and  will  actually 
have  twenty-five  hours  in  his  day.  Such  changes  in  the  clock  are 
made  regularly  on  ships  that  cross  the  Atlantic.  The  change,  how- 
ever, is  generally  less  than  an  hour,  for  only  in  high  latitudes  can 
ships  travel  through  15°  of  longitude  in  a  day.  On  Wednesday,  if 
the  traveler  continues  westward  at  the  rate  of  15°  a  day,  a  change  of 
another  hour  will  be  necessary.  London  tune  will  now  be  ahead  of 
the  traveler's  by  two  hours,  for  each  of  the  traveler's  days  has  been 
twenty-five  hours  long  instead  of  twenty-four.  If  he  keeps  on 
around  the  world  he  will  traverse  360°  of  longitude,  and  change  his 
time  twentj^-four  hours.  Whether  he  travels  slowly  or  rapidly  he 
will  gain  the  same  amount  of  lime  in  traveling  the  same  number  of 
degrees,  and  when  he  gets  l)ack  to  London  he  will  liave  gained  a  whole 
day. 

Of  course  such  a  traveler  does  not  really  live  twenty-four  hours 
more  than  his  friends  who  stay  at  home;  therefore,  in  order  to  have 
his  calendar  correct  he  must  skip  a  day,  that  is,  move  the  date  ahead 
one  day  to  make  up  for  the  twenty-four  hours  which  hixxv  b(>en  added 
bit  by  bit  to  his  other  days.  In  traveling  eastward  the  days  are 
shortened  instead  of  lengthened,  and  the  watch  nmst  be  set  ahead 


28 


MANS   in:i-\'II<)X   TO  LOCATIOX 


instead  of  liack.     A  cciiain  amount  of  the  twontj'-fom-  luniis  is  lost 

out  of  each  chiy.     As  the  daj's 

are    sliorter.    they    ]mss    more 

rajiidly  tlian  a  .honu\  and  \\\un 

the   traveler   ^vti^   Iniek    to    his 

startinfi])oiiit  liis  reckoning;  will 

be  one   day   ahead  of   that    of 

the  ])eo]ile  who  have  stayed  at 

home.     Therefore,  he  nnist  set 

his  calendar  one  day  hack,  that 

is,  re]ieat  on(>  date. 

Where  Days  are  Lost  or 
Gained. — ^^'hi<•hever  way  one 
tra\'els  around  the  world  the 
date  nnist  evidently  ho  changed 
somewher(\  If  each  person 
('han<i;ed  when  he  finished  his 
jouniey,  it  would  cause  great 
confusion.  The  easiest  place  to 
chanp;e  the  date  is  the  180th 
meridian,  for  this  lies  abuost 
wi lolly  in  the  ocean,  and  com- 
paratively few  peoiile  cross  it. 
For  convenience  the  actual 
Intertiational  Date  Line  is  a 
little  zigzag,  as  sho\ni  in  Fig.  0, 
for  the  Fiji  and  Chatham 
Islands  prefer  to  have  the  same 
day  as  New  Zealand,  while  tlie 
Aleutian  Islands  wish  to  be  like 
the  rest  of  Alaska,  ^\■henever 
a  ship  crosses  this  line  it  adjusts 
its  time,  that  is,  (lro])s  the  next 
daj'  of  the  calendar  if  hound 
westward  and  adds  a  day  usual- 
ly called  Meridian  Day  if  boimd 
eastward.  Perhaiis  the  only 
unhapi)y  result  of  this  arrangc- 
nient  is  to  the  boy  whose  birth- 
day may  fall  u]ion  a  lost  da\-. 

How  Navigators  Find  Their  ,,      ,.      ,  ,         .      ,  ,,  .    , 

°  J'Ki.  (). — IiilcriialioiKil  Date  Line. 

Location.     An  exact  knowledge 

of  latitude  and  longitude  and  also  of  time  is  essential  to  the  great  art 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  MOTIONS       29 

of  navigation.  The  sea  captain  has  no  mile  posts  or  signals  to  guide 
him  as  has  the  engineer  on  a  locomotive.  He  cannot  even  measure 
his  speed  with  perfect  accm'acy.  His  ship,  to  be  sure,  is  equipped  with 
a  log  or  little  wheel  that  drags  in  the  water  far  astern  and  measures 
the  distance  like  the  speedometer  of  an  automobile.  The  mariner 
also  knows  how  many  revolutions  the  propeller  makes  and  how 
far  each  is  supposed  to  send  the  ship  forward.  Yet  since  the 
speed  and  direction  of  ocean  currents  are  not  constant,  one  cannot 
be  sure  how  much  of  the  distance  indicated  by  the  log  and  pro- 
peller is  due  to  the  actual  movement  of  the  ship  and  how  much 
to  the  currents.  Moreover,  the  mariner  cannot  always  be  sure 
that  his  ship  is  moving  in  the  right  direction.     Its  prow  may  always 


Fig.  7 — Position  of  a  Ship  bj^  Dead  Reckoning  and  by  Obscrvatiou. 

A — B  =Course  by  dead  reckoning. 
B — C=Unreckoned  drift. 
.1  — C  =Actual  course. 

point  right,  but  an  unusually  strong  current  or  wind  may  carry 
the  vessel  many  miles  from  its  true  course  in  spite  of  all  the  mariner's 
corrections. 

WTien  the  navigator  approaches  land  such  mistakes  are  most 
hazardous  unless  he  can  correct  them  by  determining  his  exact  loca- 
tion. In  other  words,  he  must  be  able  to  determine  his  latitude  and 
longitude,  and  thereby  correct  any  mistakes  that  he  has  made  in  his 
"dead  reckoning"  from  the  log  and  propeller  and  from  his  direction 
as  determined  by  the  compass. 

Latitude  at  Sea. — Wherever  one  may  be,,  the  mmiber  of  degrees 
from  the  zenith  to  the  noonday  sun  is  always  equal  to  the  number  of 
degrees  between  the  observer's  position  and  the  part  of  the  earth 
where  the  sun's  rays  are  then  falling  vertically.  The  ''Nautical 
Almanac"^  tc>lls  the  mariner  exactlj^  where  the  rays  are  vertical  at 
any  given  tijne.  Hence  the  only  thing  for  him  to  do  is  to  measure 
with  his  sexuint  the  mnnber  of  degi'ces  in  the  angle  between  his 
zenith  and  the  noon-daj^  sun  and  add  or  subtract  the  number  of  degrees 
by  which  the  vertical  rays  are  north  or  south  of  the  equator.  For 
convenience,  however,  the  mariner  actually  measures  the  distance 
from  the  horizon  to  the  noon-day  sun,  and  sul)tracts  this  measure- 
ment from  90°.     Tliis  is  merely  because  the  horizon  can  easily  l)e 

*  The  American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac  is  to  be  obtained  for  a 
gmaii  fee  from  the  Supt.  of  Documents,  Gov't  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 


MO 


MANS    Ki:i,AI'I()\     TO    I.OCATIOX 


located  wiiilc  tlic  zciiitli  is  ?iol  (Icliiiitcly  iii;iikc<l.      At  sea  the  zenith, 
of  course,  is  al\va>s  DO     lidiii  all  pacts  of  I  he  lioiizoii. 

Longitude  at  Sea.  While  (letei-miiiiii«;-  liis  hititude  the  mai-iiier 
may  (leteniiiiie  the  houi'  of  local  noon,  by  finding-  the  exact  inonienl 
when    the    sun    is    hiuiiest.         Knowiim;    this    he    can    delciniine    jiis 


Imc..  8.— Uso  of  tho  Sextant. 


The  litUo  diagram  on  the  left  shows  a  graduated  circle  on  which  the  angle  6  has  been 
measured.  A  sextant  has  a  similar  graduated  arc  on  which  tho  observer  measures  the  angle 
between  his  horiion  and  the  noonday  sun.  Such  an  angle  is  shown  at  b  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  main  diagram.  At  the  equinoxes,  when  the  sun  is  vertical  at  the  equator,  the 
latitude  of  the  place  of  observation  is  measured  by  eitiier  of  the  angles  marked  a,  since  the 
lines  marked  "to  sun"  are  parallel.  But  the  angle  a  is  evidently  equal  to  90°-b.  Hence, 
to  find  the  latitude  at  any  time  of  the  year  it  is  merely  necessary  (1)  to  mca.sure  the  angle 
h  at  noon  with  a  sextant,  (2)  to  subtract  /)  from  90°,  and  (3)  to  add  or  subtract  the  latitude 
where  the  sun's  rays  happen  to  fall  vertically  on  the  date  in  question  as  given  in  the  Nautical 
Almanac. 


lontiil  ud<'  l)y  simply  compaiin<i-  local  noon  with  ( Ireenwich  t  ime  which 
is  ;d\\;iys  kept  on  ships  hy  clocks  of  remaikalile  actairacy,  called 
chr.m.inK  h  IS.  in  ])i;ic|  ic-  he  m.-ikes  .anothei'  ol)sei-\at  ion  foi'  this 
earlier  in  the  day. 

Since  an\-  place  on  the  earth's  surface  rotates  throuiih  1.")  in  one 
hour,  there  is  a  difference  of  1.5''  in  lon<iitude  foi'  evei'v  liour  of  differ- 
ence between  the  mariner's  local  noon  and  the  time  indicated  hv  the 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  MOTIONS  31 

chronometer.  Thus  if  local  noon  occurs  when  the  chi-ononietci- 
reads  1  p.m.  the  ship  is  15°  from  the  prime  meridian.  Since  local 
time  is  behind  Greenwich  time  the  ship  is  west  of  the  prime  meridian. 
Hence  the  lonfj-itude  is  15°  W.  Suppose  that  local  noon  came  at  9.40 
a.m.  by  the  chronometer.  In  this  case  the  difference  in  time  is  two 
hours  and  twenty  minutes,  which  is  equivalent  to  35°.  Hove  local 
time  is  ahead  of  CJreenwich  time.  Hence  the  ship  is  east  of  tlu^  prime' 
meridian,  and  the  longitude  is  35°  E.  Wlien  the  mariner  has  deter- 
mined both  latitude  and  longitude,  he  knows  exactly  where  he  is, 
and  can  locate  the  spot  on  his  chart  of  the  sea  on  which  he  is  sailing. 
The  more  important  points  upon  maps  are  first  located  by  methods 
like  those  used  by  the  mariner.  Then  when  the  latitude  and  longitude 
of  man}"  places  are  known,  the  map  can  be  drawn. 

How  Maps  Depend  on  the  Earth's  Form  and  Motions. — The  shape 
and  movements  of  the  earth  and  its  relation  to  the  sun  are  of  primary 
importance  not  only  in  determining  latitude,  longitude,  time  and  the 
seasons,  ])ut  in  determ-ining  how  maps  shall  be  fnade.  If  there  were 
no  equator  and  poles,  and  if  the  earth's  rotation  did  not  cause  the  sun 
and  stars  continually  to  move  through  the  heavens,  there  would  ])e 
no  such  thing  as  locating  points  by  means  of  observations  of  latitude 
and  longitude.  Because  of  the  earth's  rotation  an  explorer  in  Central 
Africa  with  his  sextant  and  chronometer  can  put  a  newly  discovered 
town  on  the  map  with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  in  an  hour.  If  the 
earth  did  not  rotate  and  were  of  irregular  shape  the  only  way  to  make 
maps  would  be  by  direct  measurements  from  some  centcn-,  such  as 
London.  Accurate  measurements,  how^ever,  would  cost  lnnidr(Mls  of 
dollars  per  mile  by  land,  and  would  be  almost  impossible  by  sea. 
Thus,  the  accuracy  and  completeness  of  the  art  of  mapmaking  depend 
direct  1>'  on  the  earth's  foim  and  motion. 

Why  Maps  are  Important. — It  is  impossible  to  stud>'  geograph\- 
intclligentl>'  without  nui])s.  The  primary  purpose  of  ma])s  is  to  show 
location.  It  is  easy  to  say  that  a  large  city  is  located  ai)i)i-oximat(>l\- 
in  north  latitude  30°  and  west  longitude  90°,  that  it  is  on  the  IMissis- 
sippi  River  107  miles  from  its  mouth,  close  to  Lake  Pont  chart  rain, 
and  that  it  is  140  miles  southeast  of  Mobile  and  165  south  of  Jackson, 
Mississippi.  But  how  vasth'  easier  it  is  to  look  at  a  map  and  see  at 
a  glance  the  relation  of  New  Orleans  not  only  to  the  moutli  of  the 
Mississippi,  Lake  Pontchartrain,  Mobile,  and  Jackson,  but  to  hun- 
dreds of  other  rivers,  towns,  mountains,  bays,  gulfs,  and  otiier  g(M)- 
graphical  features.  Thus  a  map  is  chiefly-  us(>ful  b(H'ause  it  shows  th(> 
loc.'ilioii  of  a  great  many  features  and  their  iclalion  to  one  another 
botii  in  (hstanceand  direction.  In  fnct .  undei-  tlie  hea(hng  "  location 
in  Fig.  1,  page  3,  maps  are  by  far  the  most  unportant  item.     We 


32  MANS   Hl'.I.AIl"  "N   ■l(  )   |,()(\||()\ 

fiilK'  rcali/c  tlicir  impoilaiicc  (inl>-  when  we  arc  in  (•irciiiuslances 
liki"  those  of  i)iis(MU'is  in  (iciiiiaiiy,  for  cxaiiiplc  duriiijr  ilic  (Jrcat 
War.  At  that  time  maps  were  so  important  to  an\  man  wlio  wished 
to  c'sca])('  that  iJiisoncr-^  U'-idc  hlllc  maps  on  their  linger  nails,  inside 
their  shoes,  or  in  ahnost  any  place  that  they  thought  would  not  l)c 
noticed  by  their  (lenuan  fiuards.  Kwu  these  inadccpiatc  maps 
helped  them  to  find  ilu  ii'  wa>'  oiil  of  (  Ici many  when  they  had 
escajx'd  from  i)iison. 

What  Can  be  Shown  on  Maps.  Althouuh  ihc  i)ui])ose  of  all 
maps  is  to  show  location,  they  are  e(pially  useful  in  showin<i-  any  of 
the  other  items  of  the  table  of  Fiji.  1.  I'or  instance,  almost  every 
one  is  familiar  with  iclief  majis  which  show  land  foims  hy  means  of 
iiacliures.  shadinu;,  contour  lines,  or  colois.  .Most  maps  show  lakes 
and  riAX-rs,  l)ut  mai)s  of  minerals  and  soils  ai'e  less  common,  altiiough 
they  are  used  by  every  intelligent  mining  man,  and  by  many  of  the 
most  up-to-date  farmers.  In  the  same  way  climatic  maps  are  very 
eonunon.  Ivich  day  tjie  Weather  Bui'eau  gets  out  a  ma])  showing  the 
atmosphei'ic  pressure,  winds,  tem])eratm'(>,  and  cloudiness  for  the 
whole  riiiied  States.  By  studying  the  weathei-  map  wide-awake 
firemen  in  large  buildings  save  thousands  of  tons  of  coal.  IManj'  a 
mariner,  fruit  raisei',  and  shi])i)ei'  studies  these  maps  with  the  greatest 
care,  for  he  knows  ihat  his  ])i(»fits  may  l)e  destioyed  if  he  I'eads  the 
map  incoi-rectly. 

Other  conditions,  such  as  tlu^  (list  libut  ion  of  ])lants  oi-  animals,  can 
readilx'  be  ))ut  on  maps,  as  can  every  one  of  the  human  responses  in 
the  table  of  I-'ig.  I.  Such  maps  may  tell  wlieic  fishing  is  the  pre- 
vailing mode  of  life,  foi-  example;  tiie  location  of  banatia  plantations; 
where  people  li\'e  in  adobe  houses,  oi'  wear  wooden  sandals  instead 
of  leather  shoes.  The}'  may  also  show  where  people  ha^■e  much 
energy,  where  influenza  is  most  common,  where  col  ion  goods  are 
manufactured,  where  caravans  are  used  most  largely  in  tiansporta- 
tion,  where  coal  is  an  important  article  of  connnerce,  where  ]ieople 
worship  idols,  where  democi'atic  forms  of  government  i)re\ail,  where 
basei)all  is  a  faVorit(>  recreat  ion,  an<l  where  civilization  is  high. 

How  Maps  Help  Explain  Geographical  Distribution.  In  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  examples  luiA'e  been  gi\'ei:  iA'  maps  ])ei'taining  to 
each  of  the  elements  of  geographical  en\ii-onnient  and  many  of  the 
human  resjionses  as  given  in  l''ig.  I.  Xotiee  thai  in  e\-ery  case 
something  is  .said  about  location  or  else  the  word  "  wli<'re  "  is  used. 
That  word  furnishes  the  key  to  the  \alue  of  maps,  liut  to  know 
where  an\tliing  is  located  is  not  enough;  we  must  also  know  why. 
Man\'  times  we  can  delerniiiie  why  by  compaiing  one  maj)  with 
a  not  her,  and  such  comjj.arisons  ai'c  one  of  t  he  most  impoi'tant  features 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S   FORM  AND   MO'IIOXS         33 

of  human  geography.  Only  by  a  comparison  of  maps  showing 
density  of  population  and  rainfall,  for  exaini)le,  can  we  clearly  under- 
stand how  great  a  diminution  of  population  results  from  too  little 
rain.  Even  the  best  maps,  however,  cannot  ex);lain  many  of  the 
most  interesting  responses  of  man  to  his  geographical  environment, 
and  for  these  we  nuist  rely  on  the  accounts  of  travelers,  on  tables  of 
statistics,  and  on  many  other  sources. 

Map  Projections. — The  fundamental  consideration  in  any  map  of 
a  fairly  large  ai'ca  is  the  projection,  that  is,  the  method  by  which  a 
curved  surface  shall  be  represented  as  Hat.     The  cur\-ed  surface  can- 


A.  Stereographic.  B.   Mercator.  C.  Conical. 

Fig.  O.^Types  of  Map  Projections. 


not  possibly  be  made  flat,  as  is  easily  seen  when  one  tries  to  flatten  out 
an  oi-ange  skin  without  bi'eaking  it  into  bits.  This  has  led  to  many 
attempts  to  represent  the  earth's  surface  with  its  incridians  and 
parallels  as  accurately  as  possible.  These  all  fail  in  one  or  anothei'  of 
the  following  i-esj^ects:  (1)  the  shapes  of  the  regions  rejiresented 
are  wrong;  (2)  the  areas  are  wrong;  (3)  the  distances  are  wrong. 
p]xamples  of  three  types  of  projection  are  given  in  Fig.  9.  The  first 
of  th<>se  is  the  stereograi)hic  pi'ojection,  wiiich  is  sometimes  used  for 
hemispheres.  The  sheet  on  wliidi  ilic  map  is  to  be  drawn  touches 
the  glo])e  at  a  point  on  the  ecjualor.  From  a  point  directly  opposite 
this  and  also  on  the  etjuator  straight  lines  ai'c  drawn  through  points 
in  the  hemisphere  next  to  the  map  sheet  and  aic  piolongcd  to  the  sheet 
itself.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  parallels  and  meridians  for  this  pro- 
jection, or  any  other,  aiv  drawn  by  geometiical  piinciples  so  that 
actual  juxtaposition  of  the  nia])  sheet  and  the  globe  is  not  neces.'^ai'y. 


34  M.WS  HKLATIOX  TO  T,nc.\TI()\ 

The  cent  nil  part  of  a  stereograph  ir  projection  is  in  \v\iv  pioportioii, 
hut  on  the  cd^cs  llie  (hstancos  are  douhled. 

In  the  Ah-rcator  ])rojection  a  cvHnder  is  supixiscd  to  l)e  \vrai)i)('d 
ai-ound  I  lie  jilohe  touchinj^;  it  everywhere  at  the  equator.  Lines  are 
draw  n  from  the  center  of  the  globe  to  the  cylinder  through  the  points 
wiiich  it  is  desired  to  locate.  When  such  a  cylinder  is  cut  ojx-n  tlie 
whole  earth  appears  as  a  single  niaj)  wiili  no  bi-eaks  between  the  licin- 
ispheres.  l^oth  nuM'idians  and  parallels  are  straight  liiu^s.  Hence  a 
given  ])oiiii  ot  1  he  (•onii)ass  is  always  in  the  same  direct  ion  (»n  all  parts 
<;f  the  map,  which  is  not  ti'ue  where  the  inei'idians  or  i)arallels  are 
curved.  MoicoA'ei'.  the  })ai'ts  of  the  map  iieai'  the  e(iuatoi'  show  the 
earth's  featuics  without  distortion  and  with  the  correct  icIatiNC 
ai'eas.  These  advantages  are  offset  by  the  fact  that  on  a  ]\Iercator 
projection  the  poles  cannot  possibly  be  represented,  and  high  lati- 
tudes are  so  extremely  exaggerated  that  they  are  usually  omitted  or 
arbitrarily  reduced  in  size.  Moreover,  even  in  low  latitudes  the 
distances  and  areas  become  exaggerated  as  soon  as  one  gets  much 
away  from  the  e(}uator. 

The  conical  projection  is  made  by  placing  a  conical  map  sheet 
so  that  it  touches  the  earth  on  the  circle  of  latitude  passing  through 
the  center  of  the  nia]).  lines  are  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  eai'th 
to  the  cone.  When  the  cone  is  opened  the  meridians  are  foimd  to  be 
straight  lines  and  the  parallels  are  curves.  The  parts  of  such  a  maj) 
near  the  central  parallel  show  no  distortion  or  exaggeration.  Maps  of 
small  areas  are  usually  made  on  the  conical  projection,  while  for 
larger  areas,  such  as  countries  or  continents,  it  is  conmion  to  employ 
a  modified  conical  projection  made  by  combining  the  conical  pro- 
jections for  a  series  of  pai'allels  of  latitude.  Furthei-  infoimation  as 
to  map  projections  can  be  gained  from  ex(>rcis(>  9  at  the  end  of  tliis 
chapter  and  from  Fig.  18. 

The  Effect  of  Tides. — Let  us  now  turn  fiom  latitude,  longitude, 
time  and  maps,  and  discuss  still  anothei'  geogiaphical  condition 
which  depends  largely  on  the  e.arth's  rotation. 

During  a  visit  to  the  seashore,  the  tides  give  rise  to  some  of  the 
most  interesting  experiences.  At  low  tide  in  some  places  gi'eat 
stretches  of  oozy  mudflats  invite  l)arefoote(l  clam-diggers  to  wander 
over  them  with  short-handled  pitchfoiks.  Elsewhei'e  acres  upon 
acres  of  sea  grass  lie  flat  on  the  giound,  broad  sandy  lu^aches  are 
strewn  with  strandecl  hits  of  seaweed,  broken  shells  and  jellyfi.sh; 
while  on  more  rugged  coasts  the  rocks  are  carpet (h1  with  seawe(>d.  In 
the  coves  many  sin.all  boats  lie  on  their  sides  where  they  have  been 
left  li\-  the  retreating  water.  A  smell  of  decay  buideiis  the  air,  not 
wholK-  unpleasant,  yet  suggesting  that  all  is  not  ((uit(>  as  it  should  be. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND   MOTIONS        35 


Thou  tlie  tide  turns,  aiitl  the  water  slowly  rises.  After  three  or  four 
hours  the  mudflats,  grassy  places,  and  weed-strewn  rocks  are  covered, 
fishei'nien  with  their  nets  eni])ark  in  the  boats  which  are  now  afloat, 
bathers  appear  on  the  sandy  beaches,  strong  currents  flow  up  the 
inlets  where  previously  the  water  was  flowing  outwaid.  The  whole 
appearance  of  the  shore  suggests  life  and  activity  which  reaches  a 
maximum  at  high  tide.  Then  the  sea  seems  to  be  brimming  full,  all 
signs  of  death  and  decay  are  hidden,  and  a  strong,  life-giving  odor 
pervades  tlu^  air. 

The  Nature  of  Tides. — The  tides  are  great  waves  with  a  length 
from  crest  to  crest  ecjual  to  half  the  earth's  circumference.  As  the 
wave  aj^proaches  the  shore  the  water  encroaches  more  and  more  on 
the  land  until  the  crest  arrives,  when  it  is  high  tide.  In  the  same 
way  the  arrival  of  the  trough  of  the  tidal  wave  brings  low  tide.  Ex- 
actly the  same  thing  can  be  seen  in  miniatin-e  and  in  an  exceedingly 
brief  time  when  a  stone  is  thrown  into  a  mud  puddle.  Notice  how 
the  margin  of  the  water  keeps  changing  its  position,  advancing  with 
each  wave  and  then  retreating  ])efore  the  arrival  of  the  next. 

The  height  of  the  earth's  tidal  wave  varies  from  2  feet  in  the 
open  ocean  to  5  or  10  feet  on  ordinary  shores  and  20  or  even  50  in 


Fig.  10.— The  Effect  of  Shallow  Water  on  the  Height  of  Waves 

funnel-shaped  bays  like  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  This  is  partly  because 
of  the  shape  of  the  shore,  and  partly  because  as  soon  as  the  waves 
reach  shallow  watei-  the  velocity  decreases;  the  crest  rises  and  the 
trough  sinks,  making  the  height  gi-eater;  and  the  front  becomes  so 
much  steeper  than  the  back  that  finally  it  may  t()i)ple  owr.  A  gootl 
illustration  is  seen  in  the  ordinary  waves  of  any  l)ody  of  water  where 
surf  occurs.  As  a  wave  apjiroaches  the  shore  it  can  be  seen  to  rise 
higher  and  higher,  as  appears  in  Fig.  10. 

How  the  Moon  Causes  Tides.— The  cause  of  tides  is  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  moon  and  of  the  sun.  The  reason  why  they  occur  at 
regular  intervals  is  the  rotation  of  the  earlh  and  the  revolulion  of 
the  moon  around  the  earth.  C.ravitation  tends  to  bring  any  two 
particles  of  matter  togollier,  and  the  tend(>ncy  is  stronger  the 
nearer  the  particles.  But  the  movements  of  the  earth  and  the 
moon  in  their  orl)its  keep  the  two  bodies  ai)art  even  though  their 
relative  distances  vary  continually.     Nevertheless  the  moon's  grav- 


36 


MAX'S    HKLATIDX    To    LOCATION 


itation  is  ablo  In  distott  ilic  siitT;ic('  of  the  ocean.  A  walor  sui- 
faco  always  places  itself  at  li.ulil  ansjlrs  to  ihc  pull  of  <iia\itation. 
SiiK'o  the  moon  as  \V(>11  a.s  the  railli  exerts  a  i;i'a\i!at  ioiial  pull,  the 
sui'face  of  the  ocean  or  of  an\'  other  body  of  water  must  j)lace 
itsi^lf  at.  riij;ht  angles  to  the  combined  strong  pull  of  the  earth  and 
weak  pull  of  the  moon.  But  the  strength  and  direction  of  the 
moon's  gravitational  pull  ke(^p  changing,  because  the  earth's  rota- 
tion, as  well  as  the  moon's  own  revolution  around  the  earth, 
introduce  constant  and  regular  variations.  Suppose  that  the  sm-face 
of  a  section  of  the  oc(>an  were  a  \as1  sheet  of  curved  glass.  The 
var\ing  diiection  of  \\\o  moon's  gravit  at  ion,  oi-  inor(>  specifically 
the  so-called  hoii/ontal  component  of  that  pull,  which  is  the  part 
that   causes  the   tide,  may  be  thought  of  as  tipping  the  sheet  fii'st 


Fu;.  11. — The  Stat  i(>n;iry  Waves  of  tli'  'i'ides. 

i4B,  water  surface   tilted    by  moon;   CD.  same   surface   tilted    in  other  direetion.     Tlie  entire 
line  CM  has  high  tide  at  once,  much  as  in  the  Hay  of  Fundy. 


one  way  and  then  another.  Thus  one  side  is  raised  a  little  while 
the  opposite  side  is  depressed  and  the  cential  portions  i-emaiu 
.stationary.  A  complicated  series  of  warjiings  like  this  is  the  primary 
cause  of  the  tides.  The  size  of  the  areas  which  act  as  units  depends  on 
the  depth  and  configuration  of  the  oceans.  MoreovtM',  wIkmi  a  so- 
called  "  stationary  "  wave  of  the  kind  here  described  has  once  ])oou 
start  (id  it  progresses  outward  like  any  other  wa\-e.  The  result 
is  an  extremely  compUcated  series  of  tidal  waves  nl<)^•ing  in  all 
directions  accf)r(ling  to  the  part  of  tiie  ocean  which  one  happens 
to  ob.s(;rve.  Often  a  tide  lags  many  hours  behind  th(>  condition  of 
the  moon  which  caused  it,  and  in  deep  bays  thei-e  may  even  be 
two  tides  at  the  same  time.  I'\)r  (>xample,  as  a  tidal  wave  jiro- 
gre.s.ses  up  Chesapeake  Bay  from  Old  Point  Comfoi-f  the  shaUow- 
ness  of  the  bay  hinders  it  so  mucli  that  by  the  lime  it  reaches 
the  head  of  the  bay  north  of  Baltiinoie,  a  second  tide  has  entered  the 
lower  part  of  the  bay. 

How  the  Sun  Modifies  the  Tides.  The  sun  causes  tides  like 
those  of  the  moon,  but  in  most  places  not  so  liigh.  The  usual  way 
in  which  the^'  become  apparent  is  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the 
lunar  tides,  as  appears  in  Figs.  12  and  i:^.     When  moon,  earth,  and 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM   AND   MOTIONS      37 

sun  arc  in  a  straight  line  at  full  luoon  or  new  moon  fFig.  12)  the  two 
tides  combine  so  that  the  high  tides  are  higher  ihan  usual  and  the  low- 
tides  lower.     These  are  spring  tides.     When  the  sun  and  moon  are 


Ocean 
SoUd  Earth  ^<<uSnr>\Moon  Tide 


Full  Moon 


New  Moon 


Fig.  12. — The  Causo  of  Spring  Tides.      Moon  and  Sun  Act  Tog.>fh?r. 

at  right  angles  to  one  another  as  seen  from  the  earth  (Fig.  13),  they 
partially  counteract  one  another  so  that  neap  tides  neither  rise  so 
high  nor  fall  so  low  as  ordinai'y  tides.     In  Figs.  12  and  13  it  should 


A  To  Sun 


Earth 


Ocean  i.' 


Moon 


Fio.  1:5. — Thi'  ("aus"  of  Neap  Tides.      Moon  and  Siin  Act  at  Rijilit  Angles. 


he  noted  that  1I10  high  tides  are  .shown  00  degrees  from  the  sun  01 
moon  which  ciiusc  them,  thus  allowing  for  a  certain  lag  which  is 
usually  in  (>vidence.  At  ports  where  the  harbor  bars  ai-e  just  pass- 
able at  high  tide,  a  ship  may  have  to  wait  some  days  if  it  happens 
to  arrive  at  ne.'ip  tide  The  exact  time  of  occui'icnce  of  eithei-  spi'ing 
or  neap  tides  varies  from  place  to  |)lace,  and  in  som(>  regions  may 
be  as  much  as  five  days  before  or  after  the  combination  of  lunar  and 
solar  a('ti^'it\■  which  causes  it. 


38  M.WS    RELATION    To    T-OCATION 

The  Construction  of  Tide  Tables. — The  ('lii(>f  practical  applica- 
tion of  our  knowlcdf^c  of  how  ihc  moon  and  sun  intiuciicc^  tides 
lies  in  the  construction  of  tide  and  current  tables.  'J'JH>se  depend 
not  only  on  the  relative  positions  of  the  sun  and  moon  l)ut  on  the 
variations  in  the  height  of  these  bodies  above  the  horizon  at  noon 
in  dilTerent  seasons.  These  cause  such  complex  relations  that 
Ihev  rcMpiii-e  lal)orious  calculations  which  are  sometimes  performed 
l)y  means  of  mcH'hanical  devices;  these  sum  up  all  the  dilTeicnt 
efTects  and  determine  for  years  in  advance  how  hi^li  the  normal  tide 
will  be  in  any  ,ii;iven  ])lace  at  any  ,ti:i\cii  lime,  'i'lic  tides  at  any 
given  place  can  only  l)e  predicted  aftei"  ol)servations  have  l)een  made 
for  at  least  a  month,  and  they  have  to  be  separately  computed  for 
each  i)oi't.  Tlie  tidt^s  at  neai'])y  places  can  be  i-oughly  deduced 
from  those  at  the  principal  ports.  The  alterations  in  the  usual 
course  of  the  tides  because  of  storms  and  winds,  however,  cannot 
readily  be  prenlicted.  At  London,  for  example,  a  storm  with  east 
winds  has  been  known  to  make  the  tide  five  feet  higher  than  was 
predicted. 

How  Tides  Improve  Harbors. — Tides  have  an  important  effect 
upon  harbors.  i\Iany  ship  channels  such  as  those  of  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Liverpool  arc  kept  from  silting  up  by  the  tidal  currents 
which  scour  them  out  daily.  In  many  casi's  where  it  has  not  been 
worth  while  to  dredge  channels  the  tide  enal)les  shi]>  to  enter  har- 
bors which  would  otherwise  be  inaccessible.  Off  the  mouth  of  nux^t 
rivers  there  is  a  narrow  zone  where  the  scdinumt  brought  by  the  river 
is  largely  dcix)sited,  and  forms  bars.  The  depth  over  the  bar  is  just 
enough  to  allow  the  water  from  the  river  to  pass  over  it  at  all  times. 
Where  there  are  tides,  the  deiith  at  low  water  is  the  same  as  it  would 
be  at  all  times  if  there  were  no  tides,  while  at  high  water  the  depth  is 
corres]ion(lingly  greater.  Thus  harbors  like  Bangkok  in  Situn,  and 
l.i\cil)()ol  in  its  natural  stat(\  which  would  not  be  deep  enough  if 
there  were  no  tides,  admit  ocean  liners  because  of  the  depth  at  high 
tide. 

Revolution  of  the  Earth  around  the  Sun. — Thus  far  we  have  been 
st\i(lying  the  el'f(M't  of  the  earth's  rotation.  Now,  we  arc  to  consider 
the  earth  in  its  varying  positions  in  its  path  aroimd  the  sun.  'i'he 
earth  not  only  rotates  on  its  own  axis,  but  revolves  around  the  sun  in 
an  enormous  and  imictically  circular  ])ath  at  a  distance  of  about 
03,()0(>.(M)()  miles  from  that  body.  Fig.  14  represents  the  size  that 
this  path,  or  orbit,  would  have  if  the  sun  were  the  size  of  the  Utile 
dot  in  the  center.  The  earth  is  so  small  that  on  this  scale  twenty 
earths  would  be  needed  side  by  side  to  equal  I  he  tliickness  of  the 
ihinnest   part  of  the  line  representing  the  orbit. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM   AND   MOTIONS 


39 


How  to  Show  the  Earth's  Changing  Attitude  toward  the  Sun. — 

The  earth's  revolution  arouiul  the  sun  would   make  little  difference 
to  mankind  if  the  axis  on  which  the  earth  rotates  were  vertical  to  the 


Fig.  14.— The  Earth's  Orbit. 


plane  of  the  orbit  around  the  sun.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the 
axis  is  tilted,  and  hence  the  earth's  revolution  causes  seasons.  The 
tilting  of  the  axis  may  be  understood  from  Fi<2;.  14.  Here  the  ])l:iiie 
of  the  orbit  coincides  with  the  pn^v.  Let  the  earth's  axis  l)e  repn^- 
sented  by  a  pin  around  which  w(>  will  imaiiine  that  \hv\v  is  a  tiny 
rotating  sphere  representing!;  the  earth,  and  lyinu-  in  tiie  plane  t)f  the 
page.  Set  the  pin  perpendicular  to  the  i)ag(>  at  any  point  on  th(>  circle 
in  Fig.  14.  Now  cany  the  i^in  around  the  circle  or  orbit,  keeiiing  it 
perpen(nenlar  to  the  page  all  the  time.  Whenever  the  ])in  may  lie, 
the  relation  of  the  earth  to  the  cential  sun  remains  the  same.  That  is, 
some  part  of  the  e(iuatorial  region  of  our  imaginary  earth  always  faces 


40  MAN  S  in;LAll()X  TO   LOCATION 

the  snn.  and  neither  pole  has  any  special  advantage.  Now  tip  the 
pin  so  that  its  head  points  toward  a  certain  point  in  the  ceiling  on  the 
farther  side  of  the  room.  Sot  the  pin  at  various  places  on  the  circle 
with  its  head  always  pointing  toward  this  same  point  in  the  ceiling, 
which  corres]K)nds  to  the  North  Star.  On  one  side  of  tlie  circle  the 
northern  henns])here  will  incline  toward  the  s\ni  while  the  southern 
hemisphere  will  incline  away  from  the  sun.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
orbit  the  conditions  will  be  rcvei-sed,  for  the  northern  hemisphere 
will  incline  away  from  the  sim,  while  the  southcni  will  incline 
toward  it. 

Imagine  now  that  you  are  far  away  in  space  and  arc  looking  down 
on  the  north  poles  of  both  the  earth  and  the  sun  just  as  you  look  down 
on  the  page  before  you.  The  earth  would  seem  to  move  around  the 
circle  in  the  dinn'tion  opposite  to  the  hands  of  a  clock,  or  co\mter- 
clockwisc.  ^^'ith  the  axis  still  pointing  to  the  North  Star  place  the 
pin  in  such  a  position  that  the  regions  surroundhig  the  north  pole 
will  get  as  much  light  as  possible.  That  will  represent  the  true 
position  about  June  21.  Now  carry  the  pin  a  quarter  around  the 
circle  counter-clockwise,  remembering  still  to  keep  it  pointing  to  the 
north  star.  Now  it  is  in  the  proper  ]iosition  for  September  22,  and 
the  axis  is  hiclincd  neither  toward  nor  away  from  the  sun.  Place 
the  pin  in  the  proper  positions  for  December  21  and  March  21.  Fin- 
ish the  work  by  revolving  the  earth  through  its  orbit  for  twelve 
months,  stopping  on  your  l)irthday,  or  on  the  day  when  you  study 
this  page. 

Human  Habits  and  the  Length  cf  Daylight. — The  inclination  of 
the  earth's  axis  causes  the  sun  to  remahi  above  the  horizon  far  longer 
in  some  places  and  at  certain  seasons  than  at  others.  Hence  daylight 
and  night,  vary  greatly  in  lengt.h.  This  influences  a  multitude  of 
hiunan  hal)its,  such  as  hours  of  rising  and  times  of  r(>creation.  In 
places  like  Norway  or  Alaska,  where  the  period  of  daylight  is  long  in 
summer,  some  people  become  so  tired  and  nervous  from  lack  of 
sleep  that  tluy  ai-e  often  irrital)le  mid  soinetinu^s  IxM-otne  insane. 
The  I'liig  wiiilci-  nights,  on  the  othci-  Imud,  biiiig  with  t  hem  a 
pciiod  (if  (•(iinparat  i\'e  idleness  which  has  a,  bad  cITccI  on  t  lu^ 
chai'ai'lcr. 

'i'hr  i(lati\'c  Iciiglh  of  (hiyliglil  and  in'ght  has  also  an  important 
biaiing  <ui  temperature,  and  thus  on  ])lants  and  agrirulture.  In 
high  lalit\idcs  th(>  earth  antl  air  Ix'come  very  cold  during  the  long 
winter  nights.  If  snf)W  falls,  practically'  none  melts  during  the  short 
days,  and  it  may  acrumulate  so  that  even  the  long  days  of  suinm(>r 
cannot  nieh  all  of  it.  and  hence  no  croi)s  can  he  gi'own.    On  the  other 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  Mcri'lOXS  11 

hand,  where  Httle  of  the  summer's  heat  is  used  up  in  melting,  the 
long  days  cause  the  air  to  become  warm  in  spite  of  the  low  position 
of  the  sun.  Hence  in  Siberia  and  Canada,  grain  and  vegetables 
can  be  raised  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Effect  of  Length  cf  Daylight  on  Production  of  Seeds. — Another 
remarkable  effect  of  the  length  of  daylight  is  seen  in  the  production 
of  seeds.  For  many  species  of  plants,  and  probably  for  all,  a  certain 
definite  duration  of  daylight  is  necessary  if  flowers  and  seeds  are  to 
be  produced.  Temperature,  moisture,  and  the  intensity  of  light 
all  have  a  marked  effect  on  the  vegetative  growth,  that  is,  on  the  size, 
shape,  and  vigor  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  but  not  on  the  time  of 
flowering.  This  depends  almost  wholly  on  the  length  of  the  period  of 
light.  For  example,  a  certain  kind  of  tobacco  called  Maryland 
Mammoth  was  long  known  to  be  valuable  because  it  grows  to  great 
size,  sometimes  12  to  15  feet  high.  It  was  hard  to  raise,  however, 
because  no  matter  how  early  it  was  planted  it  would  not  produce 
seeds  except  when  transplanted  to  a  greenhouse  during  the  winter. 
Then  it  was  found  that  plants  started  in  the  autumn  and  only  1  of  2 
feet  high  would  produce  seeds  in  the  winter  at  the  same  time  as  the 
great  stalks  that  had  l^ccn  growing  since  spring.  Finally  experiments 
showed  that  if  the  tobacco  were  covered  so  that  no  light  reached  it 
during  part  of  each  day  in  summer,  it  would  produce  seed  without 
regard  to  its  size.  In  other  words  a  healthy  plant  begins  to  produce 
seeds  when  the  length  of  the  period  of  daylight  is  reduced  for  a  few 
weeks  to  eight  or  nine  hours. 

Other  plants  like  the  radish,  for  cxamj^lo,  usually  blossom  only 
when  the  period  of  light  is  long.  For  that  reason  many  of  the 
common  vegetables  of  the  temperate  zone  will  not  produce  seeds  in 
the  tropics,  for  there  the  daylight  never  lasts  more  than  twelve  liours. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  such  plants  are  grown  in  a  greenhouse  timing 
the  short  days  of  winter,  they  can  be  made  to  blossom  by  subjecting 
them  to  electric  light  dm-ing  part  of  the  night. 

Many  kinds  of  trees  that  blossom  early  in  the  spring  are  stimulated 
to  form  flower  buds  by  the  short  days  of  the  autumn.  Cold  w(^ather 
comes  on,  however,  and  checks  their  gro\\'th,  but  as  soon  as  the  air 
is  sufficiently  warm  they  blossom  during  the  short  days  of  spring. 
All  this  is  important  to  the  farmer.  If  he  wants  his  crops  to 
blossom  quickly  without  making  much  growth  of  st(>ni  and  leaf,  he 
should  plant  them  only  a  little  before  th(^  time  when  the  lenglh  of 
the  days  causes  the  flower  buds  to  (le\"elop.  if  he  wants  much 
vegetative  growth,  however,  he  nuisf  jilaiit  long  before  the  time  when 
the  length  of  the  day  leads  to  flowering. 


42 


MAN'S   KI;LAI"1()N    'I'o   L()C\'|-I()\ 


How  Daylight  and  Night  Vary  in  Length.  The  cause  of  ^;u•iat  ions 
in  tile  leii^:tli  of  daylight  and  ni<ihl  is  illustrated  in  Fifz;.  1").  This 
repivsents  tiie  distribution  of  sunlight  in  tlie  northei-ii  lieiiiisi)lierc 
during  each  month  of  the  year.  The  pi-opoitions  of  tlic  caiih.  sun, 
and  orl)it  are  far  from  true,  l)ut  this  is  necessary  in  order  to  make 
the  earth  larir(>  enough.  In  the  figure  the  North  Polo  i.s  toward  us, 
and   tile  cart li  is  revolving  around   llic  sun   in   t lie  direction  sliown 


Fi(j.  15. — Loiii^th  of  Day  and  Ninlit. 


|jy  tiie   dates.     It  rotates  in  tiie  same  dii-ection,  that   is,  eounter- 
cloclcwise. 

In  studying  l'"ig.  1.")  let  \is  l^egin  witli  tiie  s])riiig  ('(piiiiox,  Mareli 
21.  On  tiiat  date,  as  a])pears  hi  tiie  u])])erinost  of  tiie  little  globes, 
the  sunliglit  l)arely  readies  tiie  Nortii  Pole.  In  oth(>r  words  from 
there  the  .sim  would  be  seen  on  tlie  horizon.  Tliere  it  remains  tiiroiigh- 
out  the  twenty-four  lioiu's,  swinging  around  the  horizon  through 
360°,  liut  not  seeming  to  rise  liigiier  or  sink  lower.  ]']xce])t  at  the 
poles  all  jiarts  of  tiie  earth  at  this  date  lia\c'  a  day  and  nigiit  of  e(|Ual 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AXD  MOTIONS       43 

length.  Therefore  this  date  is  called  the  spring  equinox,  for  the 
name  means  "  equal  night."  There  is  also  an  autumn  equinox 
about  September  22. 

Look  now  at  the  diagrams  for  April,  May,  and  June.  At  the  pole 
the  sun  is  now  considcrabh'  above  the  horizon.  In  spite  of  the 
earth's  rotation,  it  remains  visible  at  all  times,  so  that  there  is  no 
night.  It  stands  at  a  slowly  increasing  height  day  after  day.  If  its 
path  were  traced  in  the  heavens  it  would  form  a  flat  spiral  moimting 
slowly  upward  until  it  reaches  its  highest  point  a])()ut  June  21.  Then 
the  sun  ceases  to  rise  in  the  heavens,  and  from  this  point  of  view  seems 
to  stand  still  before  it  begins  to  descend  again.  Hcncc^  .June  21  is 
called  the  solstice,  or  standing  still  of  the  sun. 

Let  us  work  out  the  length  of  the  days  at  different  latitudes  and 
at  different  seasons.  For  instance,  on  July  21  five-sixths  of  the  Arctic 
Circle  is  in  the  sunlight.  Therefore  a  miner  at  the  great  Ijend  of  the 
Yukon  would  see  the  sun  five-sixths  of  the  time,  or  al)()ut  twenty 
hours.  During  the  night  of  four  hours  the  sun  would  be  so  little 
below  the  horizon  that  he  could  see  all  the  time.  Let  us  see  how 
day  and  night  would  compare  about  July  21  in  St.  Paul  and  Minne- 
apolis in  latitude  45°.  In  the  July  diagram  in  Fig.  15  approxi- 
mately four  and  a  half  out  of  the  twelve  divisions  into  which  the 
meridians  divide  the  45th  parallel  are  in  the  darkness.  As  each 
div'ision  reprc^sents  30°  of  longitude  the  dark  part  of  the  circle  contains 
about  135°  and  the  hght  part  225°.  As  15°  of  longitude  equal  one 
liour  of  time,  the  night  lasts  nine  nours,  and  the  day  fifteen. 

The  Cause  of  the  Seasons. — (1)  The  Relative  Length  of  Day  and 
Night. — The  seasons  [)lay  so  overwhelming  a  part  in  our  lives  that 
it  is  interesting  to  understand  their  causes.  The  difference  between 
sununer  and  winter  is  due  to  three  chief  causes,  each  of  which  is 
dependent  upon  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis.  The  first,  but 
not  the  mast  important  cause,  is  the  relative  length  of  day  and  night. 
We  have  alrc^ady  seen  that  when  the  pcMiod  of  sunlight  is  short  in 
winter,  the  amount  of  heat  given  to  the  earth  hy  the  sun  is  necessarily 
small,  but  it  increases  as  the  days  grow  longer. 

(2)  The  Relative  Distance  Traversed  by  the  Sim's  Rays  in  the 
Atmosphere. — The  second  cause  of  the  seasons  is  the  degree  to  which 
the  sun's  heat  is  absorl)('(l  b\-  tlie  atmosphere.  At  sunrise  or  sunset, 
even  on  the  hottest  day.  one  can  look  (hrectly  at  the  sun  without 
difficulty.  At  noon,  however,  this  is  impossible.  The  reason  for 
the  contrast  is  that  the  air  itself  intercepts  nuicli  light  and  heat ,  \\  hilc 
the  dust  and  moisture  contained  in  the  air  inteiccpt  still  moic  At 
suiu'ise  or  sunset  th(>  rays  of  light  reach  the  eye  onl\-  alter  ])assing 
thioutih   much   nioic  aii'  than  at    noon,  as  mav  be  seen   in   l  ig.    Iti. 


■\\ 


MAX'S  RELATION   To    I.ocatiox 


Hence  iinicli  less  heat  i-cachcs  the  caitliV  .•-iiil'acc  ulicn  the  sun  i>  low. 
Since  tlie  sun  nev(>r  rises  hi^h  in  polai-  latitudes,  such  rejiions  are 
always  cold.  Since  tlu>  sun  is  low  dining  part  of  the  year  in  middle 
latitudes,  and  hiuli  at  othei-  times  such  jilaccs  have  i)i-onounced 
seasons  of  waiin  and  cool  weather.     \\'here  the  sun  is  always  hifih 


Fig.  16. — Effect  of  the  Atmosphere  on  the  Ainount  of  Suiiliglit. 


in  equatorial  latitudes,  the  weather  is  warm  at   all   tim(>s  and   the 
.seasons  are  not  jironounced. 

(3)  The  yariiiiKj  SUint  of  the  S}{n\'<  Xodtidd)/  l\(n/s.-~A  lliiid 
imjjortant  reason  for  the  difference  of  the  seasons  is  illustrated 
in  l'"i^.  17.  The  middle  jilobe  shows  the  earth  at  the  e(]uinoxes, 
March  21  and  Septemher  2'.].  The  sun,  which  is  f;ir  away  to  the 
lifiht.  is  so  i)laced  that  its  rays  ar(>  vertical  at  the  (Mpiator.  BetwiH-n 
the  sun  and  the  earth  has  been  ])laced  a  screen  with  two  rectanirular 
holes  of  the  same  size.  Th(>  same  amovmt  of  sunliuht  falls  thiouuh 
each  and  warms  a  si)ot  on  the  earth's  surface.  The  si)ot  at  the 
('(juator,  however,  is  much  smaller  than  th(>  one  l)etwe(Mi  50°  and 
()()°  farther  north.  There  is  a  dilfeicnce  in  siz(>  because  at  the 
('([Uator  th(!  rays  fall  vertically  and  hence  cover  the  smallest  |)os- 
sible  amount  of  .sjiace.  while  toward  the  j)oles  they  fall  aslant  and 
in  ihi-  p;ii  liciilai-  latilude  ai'e  spivad  o\-ei'  an  aica  twic(>  as  lai'fiC 
as  at  the  (-(juator.  Since  the  amount  of  heat  is  the  same  in  both 
cases,  a  sfpiai-e  mile,  foi-  instance^,  would  receiv(^  twice*  as  nmch  heat 
at   the  ('(jUator  as  a  s(|Uare  mile  in  the  other  jjosilion.     This  simi)le 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  MOTIONS        45 


illustration  shows  that  the  sun  gives  most  heat  where  its  rays  are 
vertical  and  least  where  they  are  most  slanting. 

The  globes  above  and  below  in  Fig.  17  show  the  conditions  at  the 
June  and  December  i^olstices.  Since  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  at  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  at  the  June  solstice,  the  sun  is  nearly  overhead  in  the 
United  States,  and  a  given  amount  of  light  and  heat  is  concentrated 
in  a  relatively  small  area.  In  our  winter,  on  the  contrary,  the  sun  is 
vertical  at  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn, 47°  south  of  the  summer 
position.  Therefore,  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  the 
light  falls  at  a  considerable 
slant,  a  given  quantity  is 
spread  over  a  larger  area  than 
in  summer,  and  the  heating 
effect  is  less. 

The  Varying  Distance  of 
the  Earth  from  the  Sun. — 
These  three  causes  of  the 
difference  between  summer 
and  winter  are  slightly  mod- 
ified by  the  varying  distance 
of  the  earth  from  the  sun. 
But  this  has  only  a  weak  effect 
upon  the  relative  temperature 
of  summer  and  winter.  In 
January  the  earth  is  about 
3,0()(),()()()  miles  nearer  the  sun 
than  in  July.  Hence  this 
period  is  called  perihelion, 
which  means  "  near  the  sun," 
while  July  is  called  aphelion, 
or  "  far  from  the  sun."  These 
conditions  make  the  winters  in 

the  northci-ii  hemisphere  slightly  warmer  than  tliey  would  otherwise 
be,  and  the  sumnuM's  corresponding!}-  coolei-.  In  tlie  southern 
hemisphere,  on  the  other  hand,  the  seasons  instead  of  being  tempered 
are  made  slightly  more  extreme.  In  that  hemisphere  the  earth's 
varying  distance  from  the  sun  causes  the  winters  to  be  a  little  colder 
and  the  summers  warmer  than  would  othei'wise  be  the  case. 

How  Plants  and  Animals  Respond  to  the  Seasons.  In  the  whole 
realm  of  nature  f(>w  (■()n(Hti()ns  of  environment  (Hiual  the  seasons  in 
their  effect  upon  life.     One  of  the  most  obvious  results  is  tlie  io\  i\al 


Fig.  17.— Effect  of  Latitude  and  of  Tilting 
of  the  Earth's  Axis  on  Area  Warmed 
bv  a  Given  Amount  of  SunH^ht. 


46  MANS   RELATION   TO  L0("AT10N 

of  vo;i;o1ali(»n  in  llic  s])i-int!:  and  its  icliiin  lo  ;•,  liaircn  stale  of  doi- 
nianry  in  winlcr.  ll  is  li;ii(l  to  rc;ili/.c  llic  niaivcli>us  (iiuility  of  lliis 
chaniic  until  one  lives  wiiciv  there  is  almost  complete  uniformity  at. 
all  seasons  as  in  dry  deserts,  jiolar  refjions.  lii<;li  nioimtains.  and  damj) 
tro])i('al  foi'ests.  I'^pially  mai-\"el()us  and  almost  more  imjjortant  is 
the  etTeet  of  the  seasons  upon  the  jii-oduetion  of  si'eds,  fi-uits,  tubers, 
and  praetically  all  the  devices  hy  which  plants  store  up  (Mther  food  or 
water.  Willioul  these  storage  origans  man  and  many  animals  ranu;- 
lUji,  from  the  hear  and  the  sciuincl  to  hirds,  insects,  and  worms  would 
be  unal)le  to  find  food. 

All  sort.s  of  f^i-ains,  nuts,  root  crops,  and  fruits  owe  their  ori<i'in 
primarily  to  the  necessity  of  storing"  up  food  durinji;  one  season  so 
that  the  ])lant  may  have  something!;  uj)on  which  to  make  a  start  when 
a  period  of  imfa\'orable  weather  is  ended  and  tlu^  season  of  iifowth 
has  come.  In  the  parts  of  the  torrid  zone  where  there  is  i)lenty  of 
moist lU'e  at  all  sc^isons,  seetls  and  fruits  are  rare,  and  man  is  corre- 
spondingly' handicai)|)ed  in  his  search  for  food.  In  such  ])laces  the 
plants  gi'ow  so  fast  that  many  of  them  can  easily  reproduce  themselves 
by  mere  spores  such  as  those  of  the  fern  or  by  tlu^  vegetative  growth 
of  shoots  as  in  the  banyan,  banana,  and  mangroxc.  In  the  oceans, 
where  the  contrast  between  one  season  and  another  is  reduced  to 
very  slight  proportions,  no  seed  plants  have  ever  been  evolved.  What 
few  there  are  have  come  back  to  the  water  fiom  the  land.  It  is 
enough  for  the  water  plant  to  send  out  spores — mei'e  imclolhed  cells. 
They  do  not  have  to  endure  the  rigors  of  a  long  cold  or  dry  season. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  lliey  make  haste  to  grow  as  fast  as  possible  in 
order  to  make  the  most  of  the  tim(>  when  the  weather  is  favora])le.  So 
no  little  plant  has  to  be  packed  away  with  its  main  organs  already 
developc'd,  and  no  store  of  food  is  needed  to  insure  it  a  good  start. 
Hence  the  i)lant  life  of  the  ocean  has  I'emained  at  a  low  level,  while 
the  stiimilus  of  vari(>ty  and  especiall>-  of  th(>  seasons  has  caused  the 
vegctat  ion  of  1  he  lands  to  be  highly  X'aried  ;iiid  progress! \'(\ 

Among  animals  the  effect  of  the  seasons  is  as  m;uked  as  among 
plants.  The  hibei-nation  of  bears,  rod(Mits,  and  insects,  th(^  migi'a- 
tions  of  birds  and  fish,  the  growtii  ;ind  shedding  of  winter  hair  (sr  fur, 
and  the  putting  on  of  fat  at  the  approach  of  winter  are  all  responses 
to  th(>  change  of  seasons.  These  and  other  similar  changes  have 
II nidi  Hiiportance  foi'  man.  \\  (lol,  fur.  lard,  .and  bacon  I'; it  are  .art  icles 
which  the  animals  produce  seasonally-  in  order  to  protect  themselves 
from  the  winter.  In  warm  count I'ies  sheep's  wool  becomes  hair  and 
the  hogs  are  all  lean. 

The  fact  that  warm-blooded  animals,  that  is,  the  birds  and 
mammals,  arc  found  almost  wholly  on  the  lands  and  are  air  breathers, 


THE    EFFECT   OF   THE    EARTH'S    FORM    AND    MOTIONS      17 

even  when  in  the  water,  appears  to  be  partly  duo  to  the  seasons. 
When  animals  first  came  out  of  the  water  and  lived  on  tlie  land  mil- 
lions of  years  ago,  a  great  advantage  was  suppos(>ly  I'eaped  })y  those 
able  to  warm  themselves  a  little  and  thus  continue  their  activities  in 
cold  weather.  Warm  blood  put  a  great  premiiun  on  intelligence  and 
on  the  development  of  the  higher  qualities  such  as  parental  care  and 
love  for  offspring.  The  cold-blooded  animals  practically  never  care 
for  their  eggs  or  3'oung.  They  do  not  need  to.  Among  warm-])looded 
animals,  however,  if  there  are  cold  seasons  the  eggs  must  be  kept 
warm  and  the  3'oung  must  be  protected  from  bad  weather.  This  was 
apparently  one  of  the  primary  reasons  why  the  parents  took  an 
interest  in  their  3'oung.  Little  by  Httle  the  swing  of  the  seasons 
selected  for  preservation  the  types  of  animals  that  had  these  new  and 
higher  instincts.  This  gave  a  peculiarly  good  chance  for  natin-al 
selection  to  preserve  those  whose  brains  were  most  highh-  developed. 
Thus  along  with  the  parental  instinct  the  development  of  intelligence 
was  fostered  by  the  seasons. 

All  this  meant  that  the  3'Oung  animals  became  more  and  more 
dependent  upon  the  mothers.  Hence  wIkmi  t3-pes  that  placed  the 
3^oung  in  pouches  were  develoi:)ed,  the3'  had  an  advantage  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  because  the  3'oung  could  be  protected  not  onl3' 
from  enemies  l)ut  from  th(^  inclement  weather.  The  last  step  was  the 
evolution  of  true  mammals  whose  helpless  3'oung  are  ])orn  alive. 
Their  evolution,  so  far  as  we  can  tell,  took  ])lac(^  chiefi3'  in  the  great 
continental  intericjrs  where  the  contrasts  of  the  seasons  are  greatest, 
and  where  the  rigors  of  winter  are  among  the  most  jiowerful  factoi's  in 
eliminating  man3'  t3'pes  and  preserving  those  whose  intelligence  is 
relativelv  high. 

In  the  oceans  nothing  of  this  sort  has  taken  ]:)lace,  for  there  the 
almost  complete  unif()rmit3'  from  season  to  season  has  not  favoi'cd  the 
evolulion  of  the  higher  t3-pcs.  \Mhmi  llic  higher  types  go  back  to  the 
m()not()n3'  of  the  oceans,  as  tlie  whale  has  done,  the  lack  of  seasonal 
stimulus  joins  with  the  unifoi'mit3-  of  the  environment  in  other 
respects  in  causing  tiiem  to  lose  their  higher  capacities.  Thus  the 
seasons  hav(^  nuieh  to  do  with  liie  fact  tiiat  tli(>  oceans  are  the  home  of 
low,  cold-blood(Ml  foinis  of  animals  as  well  as  of  low,  spore-bearing 
types  of  ])lan1s,  while  the  lands  and  especiall\-  t hose  parts  with  strong- 
seasonal  conti'asts,  are  the  home  of  the  highlv  develop(>d  mammals, 
birds,  and  seed-b(>aring  plants. 

How  Man  Responds  to  the  Seasons. — Among  men  the  influence 
of  the  seasons  is  no  less  tiian  among  plants  and  animals.  There  is 
scarceh-  an  occupation  wlu'ch  does  not  varv  according  to  the  seasons. 
W  iih  farming  this  is  ])i-e('ininentl\'  true.     A  farmei'  who  has  few  liv€^ 


48  MANS    Ki:LA'ri()N   'I'O   LOCA'I'ION 

stock, — and  ihcrc  aic  millions  of  such,  has  practically  nothing  to  do 
during  the  wintci'.  If  snow  lies  on  ihc  lii-ouiul  or  th(>  soil  is  fi-ozon, 
time  often  hangs  hcaxy  on  his  hands.  In  the  siunnicr,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  spile  of  the  loiii;  (la\s  he  is  Imsy  every  moment  and  his 
wdik  often  piles  up  ahead  of  iiini.  Willi  students  and  most  people 
who  ai'e  engaged  in  liiciary  and  scieiilihc  ])tusni1s  cpiite  the  ojijiosite 
is  true.  In  winter,  when  daylight  is  shoit ,  they  often  injuic  their 
eves  by  jxiring  owr  hooks  from  morning  till  midnight.  In  siunmei' 
when  tlu'  long  tiays  are  hesl  U)r  study  so  far  as  light  is  conceined, 
although  not  necessarily  otherwise,  ihey  fi'e(|uently  spend  weeks  oi- 
montiis  with  little  oi- no  study.  Jietween  the  farmers  and  the  students 
arc  people  upon  whom  the  seasons  have  almost  every  degree  of  effect. 
The  railroad  man,  the  manufactiu'cr,  the  banker,  the  carpenter,  and 
the  hardware  merchant  all  have  busy  seasons  and  slack  seasons  at 
regular  times  of  the  year.  Moreover,  the  character  of  their  work 
varies  from  season  to  season.  Health  and  recreation  vary  similail>', 
for  people  generalh'  have  the  best  health  in  the  autumn,  while  such 
games  as  hockey  and  football  are  rarely  played  except  at  certain 
seasons.  The  difficult}'  is  not  to  find  examples  of  seasonal  vai'ia- 
tions,  but  to  find  occupations  or  activities  upon  which  the  seasons 
have  no  effect.  And  all  these  seasonal  activities  depend  directly  or 
indiicctly  u])oii  the  differences  in  weather  arising  from  tlu^  inclina- 
tion of  the  earth's  axis. 

How  the  Seasons  have  Helped  to  Civilize  Mankind. — Without 
the  seasons  mankind  might  perhaps  never  have  become  ci^•iliz(Hl. 
When  early  man  began  to  rely  on  his  mind  instead  of  on  physical 
strength,  one  of  his  liist  iiupoitaiit  ideas  was  to  store  uj)  hxxl  for 
seasons  of  scarcity.  So  long  as  he  lived  In  Inmting  this  was  relatively 
unimportant,  but  as  soon  as  ho  began  to  practice  farming  he  could 
not  live  unless  he  stored  up  food  in  sunnnei'  to  last  him  thidugh  the 
winter.  In  lemperate  regions  with  strong  seasonal  changes  this 
was  far  more  necessary  than  in  warm  regions  with  no  I'cal  winter. 
Moreover,  the  strong  contrast  between  the  seasons  stimulates  him  to 
be  active  and  energetic  not  only  in  storing  up  food,  but  in  making 
new  in\-en1ions.  Tn  every  stage  of  life  those  |ie()])l(^  are  most  success- 
ful who  plan  intelligently  for  the  future  which  lies  months  or  even 
yeais  ahead  of  them.  The  inclination  of  the  (>arth's  axis  and  the 
resultant  seasojis  iiave  been  one  of  the  i-hief  incentives  to  this  kind  of 
foresight. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  1'1{()HL1;MS 

1.  A.  On  a  nlolic  folliiw  \(iiir  nicridiiiii  sonlliwanl  until  you  aro  in  a  south 
latitude  equal  to  ^our  Ikjiuo  latitude.  How  many  defji'ee.s  of  longitude 
are  yovi  from  South  AnuTJca,  and  how  many  miles?  How  does  the 
time  th(>rr  romjjare  willi  that  at  your  o\\Ti  home  and  at  Greenwich? 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  MOTIONS        45 

B.  Find  a  place  half  way  around  the  world  in  your  own  latitude.     Express 

the  location  of  this  place  in  latitude  and  l()n}i;itude. 

C.  Express  the  exact  location  of  your  antipodes  in  terms  of  latitude  and 

longitude,  and  find  the  place  on  the  globe.     How  far  and  in  what 
direction  is  this  place  from  the  nearest  land?     What  is  the  hour  of  the 
day  there  while  you  are  working  out  this  exercise? 
2.  Locate  the  following  points  in  respect  to  some  country,  island,  or  body  of 
water : 

A.  The  place  having  the  lowest  latitude  and  longitude. 

B.  The  lowest  latitude  and  the  greatest  longitude. 

C.  The  highest  south  latitude  and  least  longitude. 

D.  All  the  places  having  a  latitude  of  45°  and  a  longitude  of  45°.     What 

is  their  time  when  it  is  noon  at  Greenwich? 

3.  A.  On  March  22  a  sea  captain  observes  the  nooiulay  sun  55°  south  of  his 

zenith.     What  is  his  latitude? 

B.  On  June  21,  what  is  the  latitude  of  an  observer  if  the  noonday  sun  is  seen 

10°  south  of  the  zenith?     If  it  is  seen  10°  north  of  the  zenith?     47  °  north? 

C.  In  what  harbor  is  a  ship  located  if  on  December  22  the  captain  observes  the 

noonday  sun  75°  south  of  the  zenith,  and  notes  that  the  chronometer 
agrees  with  the  local  time. 

D.  What  is  the  location  of  a  vessel  whose  chronometer  reads  9.40  a.m.  at  local 

noon,  and  whose  captain  observes  the  noonday  sun  43°  south  of  his  zenith 
on  September  22? 

4.  A.  Pittsburg,  with  a  latitude  of  40°  28',  and  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  with  a 

latitude  of  32°  48',  both  lie  on  the  80°  meridian.     What  is  the  distance  in 
miles  between  the  two  cities? 

B.  Enumerate  the  countries  you  would  cross  in  following  your  parallel  cast- 

ward  around  the  world. 

C.  Follow  eastward  the  parallel  in  the  southern  hemisphere  corresponding  to 

your  own  in  the  northern,  and  list  the  countries  that  are  crossed. 

D.  Similarly  follow  your  meridian  starting  southward  and  list  the  countries 

that  would  be  crossed  in  passing  around  the  world. 

5.  How  is  it  that  an  account  of  the  last  shots  in  the  Great  War  was  published  in 

the  morning  papers  of  San  Francisco  although  the  firing  did  not  stop 
till  11  A.M.  of  that  day? 
C).  What  kind  of  tides  would  there  be  in  New  England  if  on  the  full  of  the  moon 
a  \'igorous  northeast  storm  were  in  progress?     Explain. 

7.  (iive  an  illustration  from  your  own  observation  or  experience  of  the  influence 

of  seasons  upon  (1)  food,  (2)  clothing,  (3)  shelter,  and  as  many  as  possible 
of  the  other  "  hinnan  responses  "  listed  in  the  last  column  of  Fig.  1. 

8.  Wh}-  should  southern  New  England  favor  the  "  daylight-saving  plan  "  while 

northern  New  England  prefers  that  clocks  and  watches  should  use  the 
same  standard  the  year  round? 

9.  Map  Projections. — One  of  the  most  imjiortant  features  of  tlu^  map  is  the  pro- 

jection, i.  e.,  the  method  of  representing  the  rounded  surface  of  a  globe  on 
a  flat  page.  DitTerent  i)rojections  are  used  for  dilTerent  jjurposes.  In 
order  to  realize  how  projections  vary,  work  out  the  following  exercises: 
A.  In  this  book  or  in  an  atlas,  find  maps  on  the  following  i)rojections:  (a) 
Mercator;  (/;)  stereographic  (or  any  jirojection  showing  two  hemispheres 
separately);  (c)  homalographic  (or  any  projection  showing  the  whole 
world  in  a  single  ellipse);  (d)  conical  (the  type  usually  cmployiHl  fur  iiiai)s 
of  a  continent  or  small  area). 


no 


MAX'S  1?T:T.\TT0\  to  T>()r'.\TH»\ 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EARTH'S  FORM  AND  MOTIONS       50a 

B.  Trace  the  form  of  each  of  the  following  regions  according  to  each  projection: 
(a)  Greenland;  (b)  India;  (c)  Australia;  (d)  Alaska.  In  each  case 
compare  your  tracings  with  a  globe  and  determine  which  projection  gives 
the  truer  idea  of  the  real  shape.  Determine  which  projection  causes 
the  greater  departure  from  the  truth  in  (a)  area;   (6)  shape. 

C.  In  Fig.  91  the  munber  of  cattle  in  India  is  about  60  per  square  mile,  while 

in  German}-  it  is  100.  Explain  why  India  is  so  much  blacker.  A  great 
many  maps  in  this  book  employ  the  Mercator  projection  where  some 
other  would  be  better.  This  is  because  these  maps  were  taken  from 
other  sources  and  it  has  not  been  feasible  to  redraw  them. 

D.  Fig.  18  is  a  map  of  the  world  on  a  new  projection,  which  in  many  respects  is 

better  than  those  commonly  in  use.  Refer  to  your  tracings  in  exercise 
B,  or  else  employ  any  other  test,  such  as  is  applied  in  exercise  C,  and  fuid 
out  in  what  respects  this  newer  projection  is  advantageous.  State 
clearly  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  under  tlie  following  heads: 


Fig.  19.— Density  of  Population  in  the  United  States,  1910. 


(a)  for  giving  an  idea  of  the  relative  size  of  land  and  oceans;  (b)  for  trac- 
ing ocean  routes;  (c)  for  gaining  an  idea  of  the  shape  of  the  continents. 
E.  Study  a  map  of  the  regions  around  the  North  Pole.  Placing  a  piece  of 
tracing  paper  over  the  map,  mark  the  North  Pole  and  two  meridians 
of  longitude,  then  draw  the  direct  route  going  north  from  Norway,  from 
Iceland,  from  North  CJreenland,  and  from  Nova  Zemhla.  Draw  an  east- 
west  line,  i.e.,  a  i)arallel  of  latitude,  through  the  nortliern  point  of  Green- 
land. Compare  the  i)olar  map  with  the  globe,  and  determine  the  accu- 
racy of  the  polar  projection  in  comparison  with  the  four  projections  men- 
tioned under  A.     Write  a  statement  of  the  characteristics  of  each  of  the 


506  MAN'S  lU'.LA'noX   'I^O    LOCATION' 

five  prnjortions  in  tlio  following  ros])ccts:  (a)  direction  of  a  north  and 
south  lino  in  difTcriMit  parts  of  tho  map;  (h)  ilircction  of  an  cast  and 
west  line;  (c)  location  of  the  north  ])ole. 

10.  (Ircat  Circle  Sailing.  St«amshi|)s  practically  never  follow  lines  of  latitude  or 
longitude.  Moreover,  they  do  not  go  in  what  seem  to  be  the  shortest 
courses  on  the  map  but  follow  "  great  circles,"  that  is,  circles  whose 
centers  coincide  with  the  center  of  the  earth.  Find  out  why  this  is  so 
by  taking  a  globe  and  measuring  with  a  string  the  shortest  route  from 
Seattle  to  ^'okahama.  Locate  three  intermediate  points  on  this  route 
by  latitude  ;ind  longitude.  Now  locate  these  on  an  outline  maj)  of  the 
worKl,  and  draw  the  route.  Do  the  same  for  the  following  routes:  (a) 
.Santiago,  Chili,  to  Auckland,  New  Zealand;  (b)  London  to  Panama;  (r) 
Capet o^\^l  to  Boston.  Write  out  your  conclusions  as  to  great  circle 
sailing. 

n.  In  Fig.  19  the  numbers  in  circles  show  the  number  of  iidiabitants  per  square 
mile  in  each  State  in  1910.  Lines  have  been  drawn  and  appropriate 
shading  has  been  added  to  distinguish  the  areas  having  the  following 
density  of  population:  (o)  over  SO  ])er  .scpiarc  mile,  {b)  40-80  per  sciuare 
mile,  (c)  10-40  per  scjuarc  mile,  ((/)  under  10. 
A.  From  the  World  Almanac  or  some  other  source,  jirocurc  similar  figures  for 
1920,  and  insert  them  on  two  outline  maps.  On  one  map  add  shading 
like  that  of  Fig.  19,  but  let  State  boundaries  determine  the  limits  of 
each  type  of  shading.  On  the  other,  draw  smooth  lines  like  those  of 
Fig.  19,  and  then  shade. 
H.  Discuss  the  relative  merits  and  defects  of  the  two  maps  thus  drawn,     \^'hich 

gives  a  truer  idea  and  why? 
C.  Compare  Fig.  19  v.-ith  the  similar  map  for  1920  and  describe  the  general 
nature  of  the  changes  in  the  di.stribution  of  j)opulation  from  1910  to  1920. 

12.  Select  some  statistical  toi)ic  which  interests  j-ou,  such  as  the  yield  of  corn  \wv 
acre,  deaths  from  tuberculosis,  the  per  capita  expenses  of  cities,  the  per 
capita  development  of  water  power,  the  temperature  or  rainfall  of  a 
given  year  or  month.  Find  the  figures  for  this  by  States  or  cities  in  the 
Abstract  of  the  U.  S.  Census,  the  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  census  volume  entitled  Mortality  Statistics,  the  Statistical  Abstract  of 
the  l^uitcd  States,  the  World  Almanac,  the  Weather  Review,  or  some  other 
reference  book.  Make  a  map  similar  to  the  better  of  the  two  majts  of 
density  of  i)()i)ulation.  Majjs  of  this  kind  arc  ouc  of  the  most  valuable 
tools  of  the  geographer. 


PART  III 
MAN'S   RELATION   TO   LAND   FORMS 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  CONTINENTS  AND  MAN 

The  Form  of  the  Solid  Part  of  the  Earth. — In  the  diagram  of 
Human  Geography  on  page  3  "location"  is  followed  by  "land  forms." 
Hence  these  are  the  suljject  of  the  next  section  of  this  l^ook.  The 
greatest  land  forms  are  the  great  iiplantls  known  as  conthients  between 
which  lie  the  vast  hollows  filled  with  water  and  called  oceans. 

This  arrangement  of  continents  and  oceans  is  apparently  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  earth  is  slowly  coohng.  Geologists  say  that  the 
earth  is  steacUly  losing  heat  and  therefore  contracting.  Since  the 
crust  is  stiff  it  cannot  shrink  any  more  than  can  the  shell  of  a  nut. 
If  we  want  to  make  a  nut  occupy  less  space,  the  only  way  is  to  break 
the  shell  by  shoving  it  inward.  During  untold  millions  of  years  much 
the  same  thing  has  haiipened  to  the  earth's  crust.  It  has  slowly  set- 
tled downward  by  reason  of  its  own  weight.  The  parts  that  have 
fallen  inward  foriU  the  hollows  that  now  contain  the  oceans,  while  the 
parts  that  have  not  fallen  form  the  lands. 

At  fii-st  glance  there  seems  to  l)e  no  system  in  the  distribution  of 
the  continental  uplands  and  the  oceanic  hollows  which  have  thus 
resulted  from  cooling.  But  look  at  a  globe  and  see  how  the  northern 
continents  form  an  almost  complete  band  near  the  arctic  circle,  and 
enclose  the  hollow  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  From  this  band  three 
branches  extend  southward:  (1)  North  and  South  America;  (2) 
Europe  and  Africa;  and  (3)  Asia,  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Aus- 
tralia. The  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans  fill  the  hollows 
between  the  branches  while  Antarctica  rises  where  the  southern  con- 
tinents would  meet  if  jirolonged  soutliward. 

This  (hsirihution  of  the  lands  as  biond  lidges  between  f<iur  chic^f 
oceanic  iiollows  makes  the  solid  pint  of  the  eartii  slightly  tetraluHJial 
in  form.  A  teti'ahedron  is  a  four-sided  solid  (Fig.  20)  resembling  the 
tent  of  Fig.  21.  \(  a  hollow  elastic  tetrahedron  were  blown  up  mitil 
it  formed  a  sphere excej)!  foi'  bioad  tidges  along  th(>  six  edges,  its  shape 

51 


52 


MANS  HF.LATIOX  TO  LAND  FORMS 


would  roughly  oorrospond  to  that  of  the  solid  oaiih.  Tf  1I10  part  oor- 
rospotuiiiifz;  to  the  floor  of  the  tent  were  at  the  north,  the  northern  hol- 
low would  !)('  filled  hv  the  Aretie  Oeean.  while  the  surrounding;  ridjjes 
would  correspond  lu  the  lin^  of  land  foniied  by  Asia.  I'lurope,  and 
noithern  North  America,  where  the  main 
mountains  run  nearly  cast  and  west.  The 
crests  of  the  three  southward  running  ridges 
would  correspond  to  the  main  moimtain 
systems  of  the  Americas,  eastern  Asia,  antl 
Australia  wliicli  lie  close  to  the  Pacific  hol- 
low, and  of  Africa  close  to  the  Indian  hol- 
low. The  third  iiollow,  though  occuj)ied 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  has  few  mountains 
parallel  to  its  shores.  Far  to  the  south 
Antai-ctica  represents  the  meeting  place  of  the  three  continental 
ridges. 

Because  of  the  earth's  tetrahedral  shape  fotn-- fifths  of  the  lands 
of  the  northern  hemisphere  lie  ])etw(>en  30°  and  G(j°  from  the  ecjuator 
in  the  latitudes  where  the  varial)le  cUmate  is  best  for  civilization. 
How  hn})urtant  this  is  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  all  the  great 


Fig.  20.— a  Tetrahedron. 


Fig.  21.— a  Tetrahedral  Indian  Tepee. 


powers  are  in  this  zone.  Fom-fifths  of  the  area  of  the  south(>rn  pro- 
jections, on  the  otiier  hand,  lie  in  regions  too  warm  and  jnonotonous 
to  i)romo1c  human  ])rogrcss,  and  hence  are  the  home  of  backward  and 

dc])cnd(iit    ])co])les. 


THE   CONTINENTS   AND   MAN  53 

Where  Mountain-building,  Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes  are  Most 
Active. — The  tctrahedral  form  of  the  earth  also  seems  to  determine 
the  location  of  the  greatest  mountain  ranges.  The  Sierras  and 
Rockies,  the  Andes,  the  Himalayas  and  Hindu  Kush,  the  Alps,  and 
the  PjTenees,  all  nm  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  earth's 
rough  tetrahedron,  with  the  continents  flanking  them  on  one  or  both 
sides.  These  mountains,  because  they  are  edges,  are  lines  of  bending 
and  breaking  along  which  volcanoes  break  out  and  little  movements 
of  the  earth's  ciiist  keep  taking  place.  Such  movements  give  rise  to 
earthquakes,  which  are  most  frequent  where  high  mountains  rise 
abruptly  from  oceans  of  great  depth,  as  along  the  west  coast  of  both 
Americas  and  along  the  opposite  side  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  Kam- 
chatka to  New  Zealand.  In  Figs.  22  and  23,  notice  how  abundantly 
volcanoes  and  earthquakes  are  found  in  three  tongues  that  extend 
southward  on  the  east  sides  of  Australia  and  Africa  and  on  the  west 
side  of  South  America,  that  is,  along  the  tetrahedral  edges.  Notice 
how  another  volcano  and  earthquake  area  also  corresponds  with  a 
tetrahedral  edge,  for  it  extends  from  south-eastern  Asia  through  the 
Himalayas  and  Asia  Minor  to  Vesuvius  and  Aetna  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  IMcditcrranean  Sea,  and  thence  skips  to  Iceland  with  its 
craters  and  volcanic  hot  springs  in  the  midst  of  snow  and  ice. 

Usually  earthquakes  merely  cause  the  earth  to  vibrate  and  even 
rumble,  but  do  no  harm.  Sometimes,  however,  they  cause  cities  to 
cnunble  to  dust,  start  conflagi'ations  wliich  cannot  be  checked,  and 
overwhelm  whole  provinces  with  terror.  In  our  own  country  the 
one  volcano  that  has  been  active  in  recent  3'ears,  Lassen  Peak,  is 
located  in  the  southernmost  extension  of  the  Cascade  Range  about  140 
miles  from  the  deep  Pacific  Ocean  and  two  hundred  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, where  some  of  the  greatest  recent  earthquakes  have  taken  place. 

The  Continuity  of  the  Lands. — The  same  internal  forces  which 
cause  earthquakes  and  volcanoes  have  heaved  up  the  mountainous 
edges  of  the  earth's  rough  tetrahedron  so  fully  that  aside  from  Ant- 
arctica the  continents  ahnost  unite  into  one  connected  series.  There 
would  l)e  no  insuperable  difficulty  in  building  a  railroad  frojn  the 
soutlieni  tip  of  South  America  to  Berhig  Strait,  under  the  strait  by 
tunnel  to  Asia,  then  to  Suez,  and  so  to  South  Africa.  A  branch 
might  run  to  the  Atlantic  coast  either  at  Lisbon  or  by  tunnel  to  Eng- 
land and  Ireland.  Another  branch  might  nm  southward  in  Asia 
along  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  then,  witli  several  ocean  ferries,  could 
be  continued  through  the  East  Indies  to  AustraUa. 

How  Plants,  Animals  and  Man  Spread  from  Eurasia  to  North 
America. — The  continuity  of  the  lands  has  had  a  great  el'lVct  on  the 
distribution  of  plants,  annuals,  anci  man.     Eurasia  is  not  only  by 


54 


MANS   l;i:i.A|-I().\  TU  LAND  FOimS 


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THE  CONTINENTS   AND  MAN 


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MAX"S   KELATIOX    1"()    I,.\N1)    F(MIMS 


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THE  CONTINENTS   AND   MAN 


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Fig.  26. — A  liailrouJ  ia  the  Andci.  . 
A  Bampie  of  the  diflScuIties  which  mountain  railways  often  have  to  surmount. 


58     .  MAN'S  RELATION  TO  LAND  FORMS 

far  the  largest  of  the  continents,  but  has  been  most  subject  to  changes 
of  ahitiule,  diniato,  and  size.  Hence  it  has  been  tlie  repon  wliere 
new  forms  of  life  have  developed  most  rapidly  dming  imtokl  millions 
of  years.  'J1ie  hoi-se,  ox,  camel,  sheep,  deer  and  elephant;  the  ash, 
po]ilar,  onion  and  wheat;  and  coimtlt^ss  other  animals  and  ])lants,  as 
well  as  man  himself,  all  orighiated  there.  In  recent  geological  times 
a  bridge  of  land  connected  Eurasia  and  North  America  where  Bering 
Strait  now  lies,  so  that  all  the  conthients  except  A\istralia  and  Ant- 
aix'tica  were  united.  Moreover,  the  cUmate  for  a  while  was  com- 
paratively warm  even  in  the  Far  North,  so  that  ]ilants  and  animals 
sj^nwd  from  hhirasia  to  America.  For  that  reason  when  we  go  to 
Km-ope  or  northern  xVsia  the  oaks,  iiines,  maples,  birches,  and  other 
trees  have  a  familiar  look.  The  wikl  animals,  too,  .such  as  rabl)its, 
S(iiiirrels,  foxes,  bear,  and  many  othei-s  are  also  essentially  the  same. 
Karly  man  seems  to  have  followed  the  plants  and  animals  to  America. 
Hence  the  American  Indians  are  more  closely  related  to  the  Mongols 
of  eastern  Asia  than  to  any  other  ra<'e. 

Land  Connections  of  Africa  and  of  South  America. — The  tropical 
clunate  of  Africa  and  South  America  causes  their  hving  creatures  to 
differ  gi'eatly  from  those  of  t(^mperat(^  regions.  Africa,  however, 
can  easily  be  reached  l)y  land  from  Asia.  Hence  such  African  animals 
as  the  elephant,  lion,  and  horse-like  zebra  are  closely  related  to  the 
animals  of  Asia.  Not  onh'  have  animals  Ikh^u  able  to  pass  oA-er  from 
Asia  to  Africa,  but  the  Indo-Furopean,  Semitic,  and  Negi'oid  races 
have  all  done  likewise.  South  America,  on  the  contrary,  can  be 
reaclunl  b}'  ])lants  and  anunals  from  Asia  only  by  way  of  North  Amer- 
ica and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Hence  its  animals  and  ]ilants  differ 
greatly  from  those  of  lOurasia.  The  little  llama,  for  instance,  is  the 
nearest  American  relative  of  the  camel.  Again  America  has  no 
native  animal  corres])onding  to  the  horse  and  zt^bra.  The  niodeni 
horse  was  introducetl  into  both  North  and  South  America  by  man 
only  after  ('oluml)us  o])ened  the  way  across  the  sea.  The  native 
Iiuhans  of  South  Aanerica  are  also  so  different  from  the  native  races 
of  Asia  that  few  resemblances  can  be  seen  com])arable  with  those  that 
are  so  marked  when  one  com]iares  the  ]ieo])l(>  oi  North  Africa  such 
as  the  Berbers  and  Bedouins  with  those  of  I'AU'ope  and  Asia. 

The  Breaks  between  the  Continents:  How  the  Australian 
Break  has  Isolated  Australia. — Although  the  continuity  of  the  lands 
has  been  of  gi-e:it  iiii])()it:ince  in  allowing  ])lants,  anunals,  and  man  to 
spread  freely,  the  breaks  hi  this  continuity  are  no  less  important. 
One  of  these  l)reaks  has  isolated  Australia.  Be<'ause  of  the  inter- 
vening sea  that  contiiunit  nMiiained  unknown  even  long(>r  than  Amer- 
ica.    When  finally  e\])l(ii'eil  it   was  foiunl  Id  contain  strange  forms 


THE   CONTINENTS   AND    iMAN 


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no  MAX'S    RELATION   TO    LAND    FORMS 

(if  life  lik('  tlic  kangaroo,  cassowary,  cockatoo,  honey-suckers,  and 
tlu'  (Micalyptiis  tree.  The  people,  too,  were  found  to  have  little  m 
coiuiiioii  with  other  races,  and  to  be  the  most  backward  hi  the  world. 
They  luul  no  permanent  dwelUngs,  no  knowledge  of  farnung,  no 
ability  to  coinit  more  than  four,  and  went  about  entirely  nude.  Like 
gorillas,  they  have  thick  skulls,  small  l)rains,  thick  broad  noses, 
heavy  arms,  receding  chins,  thick  necks,  and  hair^^  bodies. 

The  peculiarities  of  Australia  do  not  mean  that  the  continent  is 
unfit  for  the  forms  of  life  found  in  other  continents,  but  men^ly  that 
the  other  forms  have  never  had  a  chance  to  get  there.  This  is  proved 
by  the  way  Eurasian  animals  flourish  when  introduced  to  Australia. 
For  instance,  inidor  the  hifluence  of  energetic  British  settlei-s  that 
continent  has  become  one  of  the  world's  great  sheep-raising  regions. 
E\n*o]-)ean  rabbits  thrive  wonderfull}',  and  have  become  such  a  pest 
in  ]iastures  and  farms  that  rabbit-proof  wire  fences  have  been  built 
for  hundreds  of  miles  to  keep  them  out.  Their  astounding  increase 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  break  between  Asia  and  Australia  has  kept 
out  foxes,  wolves,  and  other  flesh-eathig  animals. 

How  the  Mediterranean  Break  Influences  Commerce  and  Cli- 
mate.— The  most  unportant  of  the  breaks  between  the  continents 
begins  at  Gibraltar.  After  stretching  eastward  for  nearly  two  thou- 
sand miles  as  the  Mediterranean  Sea  it  splits  into  two  arms.  One 
leads  northward  through  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Black  Sea.  The 
other  leads  southward  through  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  but 
is  interrupted  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  which  once  obliged  Europeans 
to  sail  around  Africa  to  reach  India.  The  Isthnuis  was  such  a  hin- 
drance that  the  Suez  Canal  was  finally  computed  in  1869.  Through 
Suez  to-day  passes  practically  all  the  couinu'rcc  of  Europe  with  the 
Far  East  and  Australia. 

In  addition  to  all  this  the  iMediterranean  break  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  its  influence  upon  clmiate.  ^^'ithout  the  water  evaporated 
from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  Italy,  Greece,  and  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Mincjr  and  Syria  woidd  be  as  chy  and  scantily  populated  as  Persia 
or  Arizona. 

Why  Gibraltar  is  of  Supreme  Military  Importance. — Because 
Gibraltar  guards  the  western  entrance  to  tlie  two-branched  Mediter- 
ranean break  in  the  continents,  it  is  the  most  iin])ortant  military 
position  hi  the  world.  In  case  of  war  the  country  that  holds  it  can 
prevent  the  shii)s  of  America  and  all  the  countries  of  northern  Europe 
from  reaching  .southern  France,  Italy,  Austria,  Greece,  the  Balkan 
States,  southern  Russia,  and  Turkey.  Shice  Britain  also  holds 
Aden,  she  was  able  (hu'hig  the  Great  War  to  examine  the  cargo  of 
ever}'  shij)  entering  the  Red  Sea  or  the  INh-ditcrrancan,  and  thus  to 


THE   CONTINENTS  AND   MAN  61 

prevent  ammunition  or  other  supplies  from  Ijeing  shipped  to  her 
enemies. 

How  Constantinople  Rivals  Gibraltar. — In  the  same  way  Con- 
stantinople guards  the  northern  branch  of  the  Mediterranean  bn^ak. 
The  country  that  holds  it  is  in  a  position  to  impose  enormous  suffer- 
ing on  Rumania  and  Russia  by  throttling  their  trade.  For  gener- 
ations Russia  coveted  Constantinople  so  that  she  might  have  at  least 
one  outlet  to  the  sea  through  ports  that  are  not  blocked  with  ice  foi 
months  each  year.  In  the  Great  War  the  fate  of  Constanthiople  was 
one  of  the  deciding  factoi-s.  The  British  and  French  made  great 
sacrifices  in  a  vain  attempt  to  open  the  Dardanelles.  They  hoped  to 
secure  a  waterway  whereby  Russia  could  ship  gi'ain  to  her  allies,  while 
she  herself  received  the  guns  and  ammvmition  which  her  own  factories 
could  not  supply.  If  they  had  succeeded  the  war  might  have  ended 
nuK'h  sooner  and  Russia  might  have  been  saved  from  the  terril)le 
massacres,  famine,  and  plague  which  prevailed  under  the  Bolshe\iki. 

Why  the  North  Atlantic  Break  is  Important  Climatically  and  Not 
Otherwise. — Another  place  where  a  tctrahedral  edge  of  the  earth 
breaks  down  is  between  western  Europe  and  Newfoundland,  where 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  projects  north  to  the  Arctic,  This  has  no  great 
effect  on  shipping,  but  its  clinuitic  effect  is  far  greater  than  that  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Because  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Atlantic  Drift  find 
this  outlet  to  the  north,  the  waters  west  of  England  and  Norway  are 
warmed  so  that  the  winds  from  them  give  all  the  countries  of  north- 
western Europe  a  climate  adapted  in  the  highest  degree  to  the  pro- 
motion of  civilization.  Without  this  warm  branch  of  the  ocean 
England  and  Germany  would  have  a  climate  al^out  like  that  of  south- 
em  Alaska  and  the  neighboring  parts  of  British  Columbia  to  the 
eastward.  Not  only  would  agriculture  be  less  successful  than  now, 
but  stinmlating  changes  of  weather  from  da}^  to  day  because  of  storms 
would  be  less  frequent. 

West  of  Newfoundland  and  still  more  to  the  west  of  Greenland, 
the  North  Atlantic  l)reak  ceases  to  be  an  advantage,  for  it  permits  a 
cold  current  to  come  from  the  north.  The  presence  of  cold  currents 
on  both  coasts  is  one  reason  why  Greenland  is  covered  with  a  vast 
continental  glacier,  a  genuhie  ice-sheet.  The  other  break  leading  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  at  Bering  Strait  is  of  little  importance,  because  it  is 
so  narrow  and  lies  so  far  north. 

The  "American  Mediterranean"  Break. — The  last  of  the  great 
breaks,  sometimes  known  as  the  American  Mediterranean,  is  occu]:)ied 
by  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Like  the  Euro]x\m 
Mediterranean  it  not  only  exercises  a  strong  hifluence  u])on  commerce, 
but  is  highly  ini])()rtaiit   climatically,  ami  is  closed  by  an  istlnuus 


62  MANS    HKI.ATIOX    'I'o    LAND    F(MmS 

across  which  men  have  foinul  it  wortli  while  to  dig  a  canal  at  enor- 
mous expense.  Since  the  American  Mediteiranean  is  smTounded  by 
islands  and  can  be  (>ntered  at  many  i)()ints,  no  one  place  exercises  a 
military  control  like  that  of  CJibraltar  or  Aden,  ^'ct  in  onler  to 
p:\ianl  the  Panama  Canal  the  UnitcMl  Slates  Ixniiiht  the  Danish  West 
Intlies,  or  Virj^in  Islands,  in  1917.  and  inaintaiiis  an  imi^ortant  naval 
station  at  Guantananio  in  Cuba.  It  also  has  strongly  fortified 
Panama  itself,  so  that  the  Canal  is  now  one  of  the  world's  most  im- 
portant military  i)ositions.  The  relation  of  the  United  States  to 
Panama  is  strikingly  like  that  of  England  to  Suez.  Just  as  England 
has  been  obliged  to  assume  a  ]irotoctorate  over  Eg^-pt  in  order  to 
]irotect  Suez,  so  we  have  had  to  jirotict  the  Keiniblic  of  Panama  for 
tiic  sake  of  onr  canal.  As  England  has  military  centere  at  Gibraltar 
and  .Aden  whose  iin])ortance  is  dnv  hirgcly  to  Suez,  so  our  stations  at 
Ciuantanaino,  the  \irgin  Islands,  and  Honolulu  owe  their  chief  im- 
portance to  Panama. 

Climatically  the  American  Mediterranean  does  for  us  what  its 
namesake  does  for  Europe.  Without  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  the  central  United  States  would  be  far  drier  than  now. 
Louisiana  would  be  as  dry  as  New  Mexico,  and  even  in  Iowa  the 
aridity  would  do  much  harm  to  farming.  As  things  are  now,  much 
of  the  rainfall  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  esp(>cially  in  siunmer,  comes 
from  the  Gulf  of  INIexico. 

The  Continents :  How  Asia's  Location  Gives  it  Connections  by 
Land. — Having  considered  the  general  relations  of  the  conthients, 
and  the  way  in  which  they  are  united  or  divided,  let  us  consider  each 
continent  seiianately,  ]ia>'ing  special  attention  to  location,  size,  relief, 
shape,  and  iclation  to  the  sea.  To  Ix^gin  with  Asia,  its  location  is 
noteworthy  because;  the  continent  is  very  central  so  far  as  land  com- 
nnmication  is  concerned.  Asia  is  the  only  continent  that  has  a  direct 
land  connection  with  two  other  continents.  Hence  western  Asia, 
being  closely  connected  with  Europe  and  Africa,  has  had  a  gi-eat 
influence  upon  both,  and  thus  largeh'  determhied  the  kind  of  civiliza- 
tion which  came  to  North  America  after  the  use  of  ships  overcame  the 
water  barrier.  How  true  this  is  we  may  judge  from  the  fact  that 
from  Asia  by  way  of  l">urope  we  have  recei\i'd  our  language,  letters, 
and  iniiiierals.  Our  chief  domestic  animals,  the  horse,  cow,  sheep, 
pig,  and  hen  are  all  of  Asiatic  orighi.  Wheat  and  barley,  as  well  as 
rice  and  jnillet,  were  apparently  })rought  to  the  other  continents  from 
Asia,  so  that  all  of  our  chief  somres  of  food  except  com  and  potatoes 
were  derived  from  Asia.  In  later  times  Christianity,  Judaism,  and 
Mohammedanism  all  spread  westward  from  this  gi-eat  continent  not 
only  into  Afri(  a  but  into  i'iiro])e  and  tlnis  into  America. 


THE   CONTINENTS   AND   MAN  63 

Hov/  the  Size  of  Asia  is  a  Handicap. — In  spite  of  the  advantage  of 
its  ])osition  in  the  center  of  the  lands  Asia  is  seriously  handicapped  by 
its  size.  Because  of  the  size  vast  tracts  are  so  far  from  the  ocean  that 
they  are  deserts.  The  few  inhabitants  are  very  backward,  not  only 
because  the  drjTiess  keeps  them  in  hopeless  poverty,  but  because  their 
remoteness  and  the  difficulties  of  travel  keep  them  from  coming  in 
contact  with  other  people  whose  ideas  might  spur  them  to  new  efforts. 
Many  of  the  Khirghiz,  for  example,  do  not  know  the  difference  be- 
tween Americans  and  Tibetans,  and  think  a  man  is  lying  when  he  tells 
them  how  fast  he  can  go  on  skates,  which  most  of  them  have  never 
heard  of.  Everywhere  the  size  of  Asia  leads  to  great  climatic  ex- 
tremes. Hence  the  disasters  are  on  a  scale  unparalleled  elsewhere. 
When  drought  ruins  the  crops  in  India  or  when  tremendous  floods 
swamp  the  rice  fields  of  China  gaunt  famine  menaces  tens  of  millions 
of  people. 

How  the  Relief  of  Asia  Keeps  Countries  Apart. — The  relief  of  Asia 
is  as  gi"eat  a  hantlicap  as  the  size,  for  Asia  possesses  the  world's 
highest  mountains,  greatest  plateaus,  and  deepest  depressions  below 
sea  level.  The  main  feature  of  Asiatic  relief  is  a  vast  band  of  moun- 
tains and  plateaus  which  extends  from  Asia  Minor  eastward  through 
the  Elburz  Mountains  across  the  whole  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan  to 
a  huge  knot  in  the  Pamirs  northwest  of  India.  Then  the  band  broad- 
ens fanwise;  one  side,  the  Tian  Shan,  Altai,  and  Yablonoi  ranges, 
striking  northeast  toward  Bering  Strait;  and  the  other,  the  Hima- 
layas and  Burmese  Mountains,  southeast  to  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
How  great  a  barrier  these  mountains  are  may  be  judged  from  the  fact 
that  though  China  and  India  are  close  together,  no  railroad  connects 
them,  and  far  more  caravans  go  from  China  to  Siberia  than  from 
China  to  India. 

How  the  Shape  of  Asia  and  its  Relation  to  the  Sea  Depart  from 
the  Ideal. — The  shape  of  Asia  is  no  more  favorable  than  its  relief.  The 
continent  has  many  gi'eat  peninsulas,  bat  the  sea  rarely  penetrates  far 
inland.  So  bulky  is  Asia  that  the  interior  contains  an  area  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  United  States  with  every  part  more  than  1000  miles 
from  the  sea.  On  the  north  many  harbors  that  might  otherwise  be 
used  are  blocked  with  floating  ice,  and  only  since  the  invention  of  ice 
Ircakers  and  of  wireless  telegi'aphy  to  wani  of  the  presence  of  ice 
has  it  been  possible  for  ships  to  reach  the  mouths  of  the  gi'eat  Siberian 
rivers  without  the  greatest  risk.  On  the  southwest  the  uiilifted 
shores  of  Arabia  and  Persia  with  their  smooth,  narrow  coastal  i)lains 
are  devoid  of  good  harbors.  Almost  the  only  native  sailoi*s  inv  a 
few  fishers  for  sponges  and  pearls  chiefly  in  the  Pei-sian  (lulf.  The 
only  good  harbor  from  Suez  to  India  is  at  Aden.     India  is  inore 


64  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   LAND   FORMS 

favored  than  the  countries  farther  west,  for  Bonil)ay  and  Calnitta 
are  good  ports,  but  between  them  the  mainland  has  no  really  good 
harbor.  From  Suigajwre  to  Kamchatka,  however,  the  many  indenta- 
tions show  that  the  lantl  has  been  snlimerged  or  "  drowned,"  so  that 
the  water  has  entered  the  valleys  and  surrounded  many  of  the  out- 
Ijnng  moimtain  ranges  siicli  as  Japan  and  Formosa.  So  there  the 
junks  of  the  Japanese  and  Cluncse  dot  the  watei-s  with  tlieir  colored 
sails  just  as  the  boats  of  the  Greeks  abound  off  the  coast  of  Asia  IMinor 
where  similar  conditions  prevail. 

How  Europe  is  Favored  by  its  Location. — In  Europe  the  con- 
ditions are  almost  the  reverse  of  those  in  Asia.  In  the  old  days  when 
men  traveled  only  on  hind  or  close  to  it,  Europe  was  completely  cut 
off  from  both  North  nml  South  America  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
could  reach  e\-en  Africa  only  with  difficulty.  Now  in  the  days  of 
water  transportation  Europe  is  the  most  centrally  located  of  all  the 
continents.  It  lies  in  the  very  center  of  the  hemisphere  which  includes 
the  greatest  possil)le  amount  of  land,  as  appears  m  Fig.  27.  From 
Europe  every  one  of  the  other  continents  except  Austraha  can  be 
reached  by  a  sail  of  less  than  3000  miles.  If  all  the  world  were  to 
agree  upon  a  place  where  they  could  meet  with  the  greatest  conven- 
ience, western  Europe  would  be  chosen,  as  it  has  been  for  the  central 
offices  of  the  League  of  Nations.  The  continent's  position  is  also 
better  than  that  of  any  of  its  rivals  in  still  another  way.  No  part 
lies  near  enough  to  the  equator  to  be  seriously  hindered  by  heat, 
while  poleward  the  continent  grows  narrower  so  that  only  a  small 
portion  lies  in  the  cold  latitudes  north  of  60°.  Even  that  part, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  somewhat  warmed  by  winds  from  the  warm 
Atlantic. 

The  Great  Advantage  of  Europe's  Size  and  Relief.^In  size  and 
relief,  as  well  as  in  ])()sition,  Euro])e  is  highly  fortunate.  Unlike 
Asia,  it  is  small  eno\igh  so  that  except  in  Russia,  no  part  is  over  400 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  central  feature  of  the  relief  is  the  plain  that 
begins  in  l^ngland  and  after  the  interniption  of  the  English  Channel 
and  North  Sea  stretches  eastward  across  France,  Belgimn,  Holland, 
and  Northern  Clermany  to  Russia.  This  is  the  most  important  of 
the  world's  plains,  agi-iculturally,  industrially,  conunercially,  and 
poUtically.  Its  fertile  soil  raises  unusually  heavy  crops.  Large 
s\ipplies  of  coal  and  iron  on  its  bordei-s  as  well  as  within  it  encourage 
all  sorts  of  manufacturing,  whib  its  level  sui-face,  navigable  rivei-s, 
and  good  harbors  stijnulate  conunerce.  The  cro\\nnng  aihantage 
of  the  plain  is  the  excellent  climate  which  makes  its  people  healthy  and 
capaljle  of  hard  work.  So\ith  of  the  plain  lie  nunmtain  ranges,  some 
of  them  clail  with  <iiow  even  iu  smnmer,  but  all  of  small  size  com- 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   MAN 


65 


66  MAN'S   RELATION    TO    LAND    FORMS 

parod  with  those  of  Asia.  In  France,  Austria,  and  Turkey  they  are 
more  or  less  completely  broken  throiifjli  so  that  cojiniiunication  from 
one  sitle  to  the  other  is  easy. 

Europe's  Fortunate  Shape  and  Relation  to  the  Sea. — ^The  shape 
of  l']ur()]H'  joins  with  the  size,  in  inakinji;  its  relation  to  the  sea  ex- 
traonlinarily  favorable.  The  continent  is  really  a  larfi;e  peninsula  of 
Asia,  from  which  })roject  many  smaller  peninsulas  se]mrated  by  exten- 
sive bays  or  seas.  Thus  the  sea  reaches  far  into  the  conliiieiit.  per- 
mittnijj;  almost  everj'  country  to  have  its  own  seacoast.  Mi)i(i)\(  r, 
recent  subjiiergence  of  a  lar<2;e  ]xirt  of  tlie  coast  has  drowned  nu- 
merous ^•a.lleys,  converting  them  into  small  bays  that  form  excellent 
harboi-s  like  that  of  Liveri^ool.  Hence  nearly  all  the  i;;uro])ean 
co\mtri('s  have  easy  conununication  with  one  another  by  water  as 
well  as  by  land  (Fig.  2S.) 

Importance  of  Europe. — In  view  of  ]'!ui()]ie's  ])()siti()n,  ri'lief, 
and  shajie,  together  with  the  relation  to  the  sea  and  the  advantages 
afforded  by  climate  and  mineral  resources,  it  is  not  strange  that  five;  of 
the  seven  "Cheat  Powere"  are  located  there.  Onl}^  two,  the  United 
States  and  Japan,  are  in  other  continents.  Nor  is  it  strange  that 
throughout  the  world  the  word  European  is  almost  sAnionjnnous  with 
"civilized."' 

Why  North  America  almost  Rivals  Europe  in  Location. — Our 
own  continent  stanils  next  to  luiroi)e  in  th(^  favorableness  of  its  con- 
ditions. In  location  North  America  is  better  off  than  Asia,  but  less 
favored  than  Europe.  We  cannot  reach  Australia  and  the  east 
side  of  Africa  so  easily  as  the  Asiatics,  but  South  AmtMica  and  west 
Africa  are  more  accessible  to  us  than  to  them.  On  the  other  hand. 
North  Ameiica  is  not  far  from  the  more  ])iogressive  i)ait  of  Europe, 
while  Asia  borders  on  the  less  ])i()gressive  jiai't.  The  distance  from 
North  America  to  Europe  became  a  (leci>i\'e  factor  in  the  Great  War. 
Had  it  been  much  more  than  30t)0  miles  it  might  have  i)revented  the 
I'nited  States  fi'om  ])utting  across  two  million  sohliers  in  time  to 
help  in  emling  the  ( Jerman  onslaughts.  MoreoAci-,  \\(>  ca.n.  r(>ach 
Jai)an,  China,  and  other  important  parts  of  Asia  nuich  more  easily 
than  can  the  i)eo})le  of  r]urope.  Thus  the  fact  that  one  coast  of 
America  faces  the  Atlantic  and  Europe,  while  the  other  faces  the 
Pacific  and  Asiji,  is  beginning  to  make  our  location  ahnost  as  favor- 
able as  that  of  I-'urope. 

How  North  America  is  Hampered  by  its  Size  and  Relief.  —One  of 
the  chief  disadvantages  of  North  America  is  that,  like  Asia,  it  is  so 
large  that  oceanic  hifluences  camiot  easily  reach  the  interior.  This 
disadvantage  is  increased  by  tlu^  relief,  for  a  gi'eat  coixlillera  on  the 
western  side  of  the  continent  prevents  the  highly  favorable  influences 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   MAN. 


67 


-\Xv^ 


68  MANS  in;i,\ri()X  to  t.axd  fokm,^ 

of  the  wostorn  occnii  t'lniii  pciiclintiiiii  f;ii'  iiil;iii(l.  Ilciicc  lar^c  ai'oas 
an*  too  (liy  for  a  dense  ])o])ulatioii  exce])t  when  inijiated.  This 
(lisjulvaiitaKO  i;^  iiartly  offset  by  a  vast  jilaiii  extendiiiji;  iioith  and  soutli 
throuuh  ihe  centei-.  in  striking!;  contrast  with  Asia's  severe  handicap 
of  a  central  zone  (•ontainin<>;  the  Iliniala.xas  and  the  hu<>;(>  j^hiteau  of 
Til)et.  Since  tiie  A])i)alachian  Mountains  can  l)e  easily  ci-ossed  in 
several  places  coniniunicati(»n  fioni  east  to  west  as  far  as  the  Rocky 
Mountains  is  only  a  little  haidei'  than  in  Euro])e. 

The  Intermediate  Condition  of  North  America  in  Shape  and  in 
Relation  to  the  Sea. —  In  pi-ojiortion  to  its  size  North  America  has 
more  deep  arms  of  the  sea  than  Asia,  hut  less  than  Kurojic.  \\v  have 
already  seen  the  value  of  the  (lulf  of  Mexico  and  the  ('aril)l)ean  Sea 
in  their  effect  on  climate.  Their  effect  on  commeice  is  also  ini])oi- 
tant  as  is  evident  from  the  presence  of  such  ]iorts  as  New  Oi-leans.  or 
Galveston,  where  the  outward  shipments,  chiefly  cotton,  are  {ireater 
in  value  than  those  of  an>'  otluM'  American  ))ort  except  New  Yoik. 
From  the  stand])oint  of  commerce  the  (!reat  Lakes  coi'i-es])ond  in 
value  to  th(»  Baltic  Sea,  which  occupies  a  coires])on(linfi-  jiosition 
in  Europe.  The  fact  that  they  extend  from  east  to  west  along  the 
line  of  greatest  mov(>nient  in  a  part  of  the  continent  where  the  favor- 
able soil  and  climate  would  cause  the  ])()pulation  to  be  dense  even 
if  they  did  not  exist,  gives  them  an  importance  greater  than  that 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  this  same  general  latitude  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence  and  many  other  small  arms  of  the  sea  do  much  to 
encourage  commerce,  especially  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  also  on  the 
Pacific.  Farther  north,  however,  th.e  great  hiland  wa-t(>rway  of 
Hudson  Bay  still  remains  almost  unused.  In  spite  of  many  projects 
to  cany  gi'aiii  from  western  Canada  to  l']uro])e  by  way  of  Hudson 
Bay,  no  hnportant  tralhc  has  yet  been  estal)lished  because  of  the  ice 
and  snow. 

How  the  Southern  Continents  are  at  a  Disadvantage. — The  three 
southern  continents  are  far  less  favored  than  the  thi-ee  northern.  In 
size,  to  be  sun\  they  do  not  suffer  from  the  ponderousness  of  Asia, 
although  the  northci-n  ])art  of  Africa  (>x])ands  to  an  unfavorable  degree 
and  contains  the  S;ihara  Desert.  In  other  res])ects.  however,  they 
are  severly  handicai)])ed.  (1)  Their  location  is  such  that  most  of 
their  teri-iloiy  h;is  a  troi)ical  climate  which  in  many  ])()i-tions  is  ex- 
tremely unhealthful  and  enen-ating.  (2)  M()re(i\-er.  the  i)arts  of 
all  three  where  t.he  climate  is  most  h(>altliful.  taper  to  small  areas  and 
lie  so  far  from  the  other  continents  that  the  long  sea  vo^'^age  inevi- 
tably hami)ei-s  connnerce  even  in  these  days  of  swift  steamships.  (3) 
None  of  the  three  is  jiarticularly  favored  hi  its  relief.  In  each  case 
large  parts  of  the  coast  are  bordered  by  mountains  so  that  com- 


THE   CONTINENTS   AND   MAN  69 

munication  with  the  interior  is  difficult.  (4)  In  shape  and  in  rela- 
tion to  the  sea  Africa  and  South  America  are  about  as  \nifa\'orahlc  as 
they  could  be.  Both  have  smooth  outlines  with  no  im])ortant  inden- 
tations. Moreover,  the  coasts  are  generally  of  the  imsubmerged 
typo,  so  that  good  harbors  are  sadly  lacking.  AustraUa  fares  better 
in  this  respect,  but  its  coasts  as  a  whole  arc  by  no  means  so  favorable 
as  those  of  the  northern  continents. 

The  Railroads  of  the  Continents. — -The  character  of  the  continents 
is  well  sunmied  up  in  their  railroads.  The  most  unportant  of  the 
continental  railroads  run  east  and  west  except  hi  Africa.  Tiiis 
is  because  they  are  designed  to  connect  the  regions  of  greatest 
progTessiveness  and  commercial  activity,  and  these  regions  are 
strung  along  east  and  west  bands  determined  by  clhnate  (see 
Fig.  20). 

Main  Railroads  of  North  America. — In  North  America  nine  main 
Hues,  that  is,  two  in  Canada  and  seven  in  the  United  States,  cross 
the  wide  part  of  the  continent,  while  four  of  minor  importance  follow 
short  routes  from  ocean  to  ocean  in  ]\Iexico  and  Central  America. 
All  these  lines  are  obhged  to  run  across  the  grain,  so  to  speak,  for 
they  have  to  pass  across  the  great  Rocky  IVIountain  system.  In  the 
arid  western  half  of  the  United  States  they  also  have  to  cross  great 
sparsely  settled  districts  where  local  traffic  is  not  sufficient  to  make  a 
railroad  pay.  The  profit  comes  from  connecting  the  people  in  the 
w(>ll-poi:)ulated  region  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  our  coimtiy 
with  the  smaller  well-populated  region  of  the  Pacific  coast.  This  is 
one  reason  why  the  United  States  and  southern  Canada  have  a  much 
gi'eater  mmiber  of  miles  of  railway  in  proportion  to  the  po])ulation 
than  bas  Europe.  The  United  States  has  about  27  miles  of  railroad 
for  each  10,000  peoi)le,  while  such  countries  as  Britain,  Germany, 
France,  and  Austria  have  only  6  or  7.  In  these  European  coini- 
tries,  however,  waterways  arc  much  more  in  use  than  in  America. 
Moreover,  the  advantage  of  the  great  railway  mileage  of  the  United 
States  is  partially  offset  by  its  great  area,  ^^'e  have  only  about  6 
miles  of  raili-oad  for  cmtv  lunulred  square  miles  of  country,  while  the 
chief  lMii'()])can  coinitrics  have  from  10  to  20. 

Main  Railroads  of  Europe. — In  Europe  seven  main  railway  lines 
extend  entirely  across  the  continc^nt  from  west  to  east.  They  do  not 
have  to  follow  long  routes  across  the  mountains  or  across  scmi-?irid 
areas  of  scanty  population.  Starting  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in 
Franc(>  or  on  the  shores  of  the  North  S(ni  two  reach  the  Balkan  Pe- 
ninsula through  Austria-Hungary,  and  three  reach  the  Black  Sea  by 
routes  nortii  of  the  Cari)atiuans.  Only  two  are  left  for  all  the  rest  of 
the  great  plain  of  Hussia.     These  alone  continue  into  Asia, 


70 


MAN'S    HKLATIOX    TO    LAND    FOKMS 


Asian    Railroads.     I'cu    niilioiuls    pass    from    Ihintix-    to    Asia 

because  its  \;ist  desert  iiitei-inr  is  so  s])arsely  ijopuhited  ami  its  luouu- 


Fii;.  '_'!»  A.      Hailwuvs  of  the  \\'i)rl(l      North  Aniciic:!. 


tains  am  so  lofty.  As  yet  it.  lias  not  boon  worth  while  to  build  rail- 
roads across  the  ,spac(>  which  inten-enes  betwecMi  tho  contoi"s  of  ]io]ni- 
lation  on  the  cast  in  ('liitia  ami  Jajjaii,  and  on  the  west  in  Europe. 


THE   CONTINENTS  AND   MAN 


71 


Nevertheless  in  the  easily  traversed  Siberian  plain  one  great  trans- 
continental railway  has  been  built,  while  in  eastern  Persia  where  tlu; 


Kio  du  JanieT'O 


PRINCIPAL  RAILWAYS  OF 

SOUTH  AMERICA 


SCALE  OF   WILES 


0        2C0      400       6C0      £00 


•m. 


I'll..  L".t  15.    -Railways  of  the  World — South  Anicrica. 


great  central  mountain  mass  l)rcaks  down,  a  line  practically  links 
Russiti  wilh  India.  The  great  length  of  th(>  Trans-Sibci-iaii  line  was 
a  great  factor  in  the  defeat  of  the  Russians  in  the  Hiisso-.IapanesQ 


72 


MAX'S    RET.ATIOX   TO    LAND  FORMS 


war.  It  was  also  a  continual  hindrance:  in  the  Great  War  while 
Russia  was  endeavoring  to  receive  supplies  throu<!;h  the  port  of 
A'ladivostok. 


African  and  Australian  Railroads.—  In  Africa  no  east  and  west 
transcoiitiii<'iil;il  line  has  yet  been  liiii'^licd.  In  Aust  lalia  (he  only 
one  was  coiiiijlclcd  in  1917.     It  I'uns  cast  imd  west  along  the  soutcni 


THE   CONTINENTS  AND   MAN 


73 


coast  and  connects  the  active  southwestern  corner  of  the  continent 
with  the  prosperous  southeastern  part  by  crossing  a  barren  desert 
over  a  thousand  miles  wide.     In  South  America  one  raih'oad  crosses 


the  narrow  southern  part  of  the  continent.  It  surmounts  the  great 
dHhfulties  of  the  Andes  in  order  to  connect  the  two  progressive 
regions  of  Argentina  and  ( 'hile,  just  us  for  similar  purposes  the  North 


74 


MAN'S   RELATION   TO   LAND   FORMS 


Amorican  tmnscontinontal  linos  siirnimint  the  Rockies  and  Sio.rras, 
wliilo  tho  Trans-Sil)(>rian  road  overcomes  the  p-eat  difficulties  of 
enormous  distance  (see  V'\^.  20). 


PRINCIPAL   RAILWAYS  OF  Cape  Town 

AFRICA 

SCAIE  OF   WILES 

0    aw  -100  000   1-00  looo 


Fk;.  •_".»  i;.  — Pvailwiivs  nf  I  he  World      Arri( 


North  and  South  Raikoads.  Aloiii;-  ikuI li-aml-soul li  lines  no  ji;reat 
trans-continental  lines  iiave  yel  hccn  liuislicd  in  any  of  the  continents 
except    IOuro])e.     The  gi'eatest  of  such  I'oads  wil!   lie  in   Al'iica  and 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND  MAN 


75 


America.  Their  purpose,  like  that  of  tlie  other  great  roads,  will  be 
to  connect  highly  advanced  centei"s  which  in  their  case  are  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  equator.     In  Africa  the  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway  is  well 


nndcn"  way  along  the  east  side  of  the  continent  between  the  jirosperoiis 
I^ritisii  colonies  of  Eg>Tot  and  Smith  Africa.  It  follows  the  Nile  to 
the  (Ireat  Laki^s  of    Central  Africa   and  then  rontinues  sontliwai'd 


76  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   LAND   FORMS 

nloTig  thp  platoan.  Tlio  other  p-oat  nortli-and-soiith  railroad  will 
some  day  niu  from  the  United  States  throiigii  Mexico  to  Brazil,  Arfi;en- 
tina,  and  Chile,  but.  as  yet  it  is  only  a  project.  The  increasing 
gi'owth  of  t  lie  sout  hcni  cniuitries  is  renderhig  it  more  and  more  neces- 
sary. A\'lu'u  it  is  built  it  can  scarcely  follow  the  difficult  Andean 
hi{>;hland,  but  must  prol^ably  make  its  way  along  the  ))l;iiiis.  Africa 
has  an  advantage  over  South  America  in  this  respect,  for  its  north- 
and-south  railroatl  can  follow  the  broad  plateau  antl  thus  cross  the 
tf)rrid  zone  in  a  comparatively  healthful  region,  while  the  American 
highlands  are  so  lofty  that  the  railroad  will  i)robably  be  forced  to  seek 
the  densely  forested,  unhcalthful  lowland. 


QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  On  an  outlino  map  of  the  world  and  with  the  help  of  a  globe  and  relief  maps 
lay  out  the  best  rovite  for  a  railroad  from  Cape  Horn  via  Bering  Strait  to  Cape 
Town  with  branches  to  Dublin  and  Melbourne.  State  where  you  would  put 
tunnels  and  ferries.  Remember  that  the  cond'tions  which  a  railroad  chiefly  needs 
in  order  to  make  it  a  .success  are  (1)  a  dense  population,  (2)  abundant  sources  of 
food,  raw  materials  or  manufactured  goods,  and  (3)  a  level  route.  Th(>  conditions 
which  hinder  it  most  are  (1)  mountains,  (2)  deserts,  (3)  si)arsely  jxipulatcd  trojii- 
cal  forests,  (4)  regions  with  much  snow  and  ice. 

Divide  your  railroad  into  sections  having  a  length  of  from  one  thousand  to 
three  thousand  miles.  For  each  section  make  a  table  showing  the  following 
points : 

a.  Countries  through  which  the  road  passes. 

b.  Chief  cities  on  the  line. 

r.  Type  of  country,  i.e.,  plains,  moimtains,  tropical  forest,  timdras,  deserts. 
d.  Density  of  jwpulation — spar.se,  medium,  or  den.se. 

c.  Mode  of  life  of  people  (jee  Chiiplcr  I). 

/.  Main  tyix;  of  freight  on  railroad.  This  (if  course  depends  on  whether  the 
people  are  farmers,  manufacturers,  cattle  raisers,  lumbermen,  miners,  fishermen, 
hunters,  etc. 

(1.  (Commercial  language. 

//.  Probable  importance  of  this  section  of  the  railroad.  Would  it  have  much 
or  little  traffic  and  why? 

i.  The  existing  railroads  that  could  be  used  as  parts  of  the  world  railroad. 
2.  If  you  could  reconstruct  Nor'h  .America,  what  improvements  would  you 
suggest  in  (1)  locat  on,  (2)  size,  (3)  re!  ef,  (4)  shape,  and  (5)  relation  to  the  .sea. 
Draw  a  map  of  the  continent  embody  ng  your  suggestions. 

3.  Europeans  discovered  Iceland  before  the  middle  of  the  '.itli  cenlury.  (Ireeii- 
land  was  discovered  by  them  during  tlie  lOth  cenlury,  but  .Xewfoiuuiland  not 
until  the  end  of  the  ir)th,  and  X'irginia  not  until  the  I'ith.  .Make  a  tracing  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  show  how  these  facts  in  the  jirogress  of  discovery  are  connected 
with  the  flistribution  of  land  and  water. 

4.  Find  out  from  the  Statesman's  Yearbook  the  total  tonnage  that  pa.s.ses 
through  the  Suez  and  Panama  C'anals.  State  how  the  relative  size  of  these  fig- 
ures is  influenced  {n)  by  the  number  of  routes  converging  on   the  two  canals, 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   MAN 


77 


(6)  by  the  location  of  the  canals  in  respect  to  the  world's  land  masses.  Determine 
how  far  the  use  of  the  canals  depends  on  the  proximity  of  the  various  countries. 
5.  The  following  figures  show  the  rainfall  and  temperature  of  Denver,  Indian- 
apolis, and  Philadelphia  by  months.  Plot  these  on  "coordinate"  or  "plotting" 
paper.  Compare  the  three  places  in  latitude,  altitude,  and  distance  from  the  sea. 
Point  out  v\'hat  effect  these  conditions  have  upon  the  temperature  and  rainfall. 


Average  Monthly 
Temperature  in  °  F. 

Average  Monthly 
Rainf.\ll  in  Inches. 

Denver. 

Tnd. 

Phila. 

Denver. 

Ind. 

Phila. 

29 

28 

32 

0.5 

2.8 

3.3 

32 

31 

34 

0.5 

2.3 

3.4 

39 

40 

40 

0.9 

3.8 

3.4 

48 

52 

51 

2.0 

3.4 

2.9 

57 

63 

62 

2.5 

4.0 

3.2 

G7 

72 

72 

1.4 

4.4 

3.2 

72 

76 

76 

1.6 

4.2 

4.2 

71 

74 

74 

1.4 

3.2 

4.5 

03 

67 

68 

0.8 

3.3 

3.3 

51 

55 

57 

0.9 

2.8 

3.0 

39 

42 

45 

0.5 

3.7 

3.2 

33 

33 

36 

0.7 

3.0 

3.0 

January. . 
Februarj' . 
March .  .  . 
A])ril .... 

May 

June 

July 

August . . . 
September 
October.  . 
November 
December 


chapti:k  IV 

HUMAN  ACTIVITIES  IN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS 

Civilization  among  the  Mountains. — T\w  woixls  "  mountaineer," 
"  highlander,"  "  mountain  white,"  and  "  hillsman,"  usually  suggest 
peojile  who  (Hffer  from  plainsmen  not  only  in  habits  and  modes  of 
life,  l)ut  in  physi(}ue  and  character.  The  (hctionaiy  defines  a  moim- 
taineer  as  "  a  person  who  lives  in  a  mountainous  eoiuitry  or  district; 
hence  a  l)oorish  person."  The  word  highhmder  makes  us  think  of 
hold  raids  such  as  are  described  in  Walt(M-  Scott's  novels.  Mountain 
white  suggests  people  oi  the  white  nwc  who  ai-e  l)a(kwni(l  and  uned- 
ucated because  they  live  in  rugged  and  inaccessil)le  regions.  To  many 
people  hillsman  brings  to  niind  some  of  the  wild  tribes  that  live  in  the 
mountains  north  of  India. 

These  are  not  the  only  ideas  associated  with  these  words,  however, 
for  mountaineer  also  makes  us  think  of  men  who  go  to  the  Alps,  the 
Rockies,  the  Himalayas,  and  othci'  high  mountains  foi-  th(>  jileasure  of 
climbing.  Among  civilized  people  the  mention  of  the  mountains 
piobably  calls  up  the  idea  of  vacations  and  fine  scenery  more  often 
than  anything  else. 

Yet  even  s(),1here  is  a  tendency  to  tlunk  of  the  people  who  live  all 
the  time  among  the  mountains  as  different  from  others.  j\Ioun- 
taineers  are  a])t  to  be  st\u-dier  and  manlier  tlian  tlie  ]icoi)l('  of  the 
plains,  but  even  hi  highly  ciWlized  comitries  they  are  also  likely  to 
be  less  echicatcd,  more  ])rovincial,  and  a  little  behind  the  times.  In 
the  less  (•i^•iliz(•d  jiarts  of  the  world  the  mountahis  are  the  homes  of 
secluded  peo])le  like  the  Tibetans,  of  imtameablc  tribes  like  the 
Afghans,  or  of  varied  and  warring  races  like  those  of  the  Balkans  and 
the  Caucasus. 

Civilization  in  the  Plains. — AMien  i^lains  are  mentioned,  we  think 
of  i)ros])(rniis  ]»co])le  li\ing  in  floin'ishiiig  villages,  among  fertile 
fields  and  rich  farms,  or  else  in  thriving  cities.  The  ])e.ople  of  the 
farms  and  villages  may  be  consen-ative,  but  not  so  nnich  so  as  those 
of  the  mountains. 

As  we  think  of  ])1ains,  we  recall  tli(>  growth  of  (^arly  civilization  in 
the  fertile  plains  of  l•]g^•pt ,  ^h'so])otamia,  and  elsewhere.  We  r(\'ilizc 
that  to-day  the  gi-eat  nations  of  the  world  all  h:iv(^  their  densest  popu- 
lation and  greatest  cities  in  the  i)lains,  or  at  least  in  the  lowlands 

78 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES  IN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS  79 

where  the  rchef  is  gentle.  Think  of  the  world's  great  cities:  London, 
Paris,  Berhn,  Petrograd,  Menna,  Budapest,  Constantinople,  Bom- 
bay, Calcutta,  Pekin,  Toldo,  Pio  Janeiro,  Buenos  Aires,  New  York, 
Chicago,  and  many  others.  Not  one  of  them  is  actually  among  the 
mountains,  although  some,  like  Pio  Janeiro,  Boni])ay,  and  Vienna, 
are  close  to  their  foot.  The  plains  of  the  woi-ld,  together  with  the 
lowlands  where  the  slopes  are  gentle,  are  evidently  the  most  desirable 
places  for  hnniaii  habitation  and  progress. 

How  Mountains  are  Formed. — The  study  of  how  mountains  orig- 
inate and  pass  from  youth  to  old  age  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
branches  of  geography.  Here,  however,  we  can  merely  call  to  mind  a 
few  of  the  chief  processes.  The  shrinking  of  the  earth  and  the  bend- 
ing and  folding  of  the  outer  crust  sometimes  cause  long  breaks  or 
faults  extending  hunch-cnls  of  miles.  The  two  sides  of  the  fault  move 
differently,  so  that  one  finally  may  stand  thousands  of  feet  higher 
than  the  other  and  forms  a  tilted  block  mountain.  Such  moun- 
tains are  generally  steep  on  the  faulted  side  and  more  gcMitle  on  the 
other  side,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Wasatch  range,  which  has  a  steep 
fault  face  on  the  west  side  and  a  gentler  slope  toward  the  east,  and  in 
the  Sierra  Nevadas,  where  the  reverse  is  the  case.  Other  moimtains 
are  formed  by  a  wavelike  folding  of  the  crust  as  in  the  Jura  Mountains 
of  France,  where  each  ridge  represents  a  wave.  Such  simple  folded 
mountains,  however,  are  rare.  ]\Iost  great  mountain  ranges  consist 
of  a  crumpled  mixture  of  folds  and  fault  blocks,  and  often  the  blocks 
have  been  pushed  in  various  directions  or  even  one  over  another. 
The  structure  of  these  complex  mountains  is  reflected  in  the  ii'regularity 
of  their  ranges  and  ridges;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Alps,  Pockies  and 
Himalayas. 

How  Mountains  are  Carved:  Valleys. — It  would  be  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  the  form  of  mountains  as  we  now  see  them  is  usually 
due  to  the  faulting,  folding,  and  crumpling  that  they  have  passed 
through.  These  processes  are  very  slow  according  to  human  stand- 
ards. Hence  even  while  they  are  in  progress  the  rivers  and  to  a 
mucli  less  extent  the  glaciers  have  a  chance  to  carve  valleys  and  carry 
away  enormous  amounts  of  rock.  So  far  has  this  process  gone  that 
among  the  Pocky  Mountains  only  rarely  is  it  easy  to  detect  the  orig- 
inal form  due  to  movements  of  the  earth's  crust.  Every  little  stream, 
and  even  every  tiniest  ri\adet  formed  duiing  a  shower  carries  away 
part  of  the  substance  of  the  mountains  and  tends  to  form  a  valley.  No 
matter  how  hard  the  rock  may  be,  a  river  or  even  a  small  stream  can 
eventually  carve  a  valley  thousands  of  feet  deep  and  then  with  the 
help  of  its  tributaries  can  widcMi  that  valley  and  reducf^  the  stei^pness 
of  its  slopes  until  finally  the  very  niduiilaiii  (ops  incit  down.     I'oward 


80  MAN'S  RELATION  TO  LAND  FORMS 

the  rinl  of  tlic  jirocoss  the  ni<»mil:iins  l)oc{)iiio  low  niid  rduiidcd  like 
tlip  ^^'hitp  iMouiitaiiis  ami  tlic  Adirondacks.  '^riic  only  ]);irls  that, 
still  stand  high  are  those  where  the  roek  is  particularly  hard  and 
resistant.  Such  mountains  are  called  res-hhtal,  and  any  one  of  them 
may  be  called  a  nioncuhioch  after  a  monntain  of  that  name  in  southern 
New  Hampshire. 

DiU'ing  the  early  stages  of  their  life-history,  when  the  valleys  are 
3teep-sidetl  and  often  very  deep  and  preci])itous,  and  when  parts  of 
the  form  due  to  the  original  uplift  of  the  cnist  arc  still  visible,  moun- 
tains are  spoken  of  as  young.  At  such  tunes  all  the  influences 
upon  civilization  w'hich  we  shall  later  describe  are  at  their  greatest, 
as  may  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  the  Andes.  When  the  valleys  begin 
to  widen  and  the  slopes  become  less  steep,  and  the  original  form  due 
to  uplift  has  disappeared,  as  has  happened  in  the  Rockies,  the  moun- 
tains are  called  mature.  Their  effect  on  civilization,  however,  is  still 
very  pronounced.  Yj\q\\  when  \\\Qy  become  old  with  gentle  slopes, 
wide  valleys,  and  no  great  height  this  still  remains  true  to  a  certain 
extent.  In  their  final  stages,  however,  the  moimtains  arc  worn  so 
low  that  they  are  reduced  to  a  peneplain,  that  is  almost  to  a  plain. 
They  then  form  a  low-  rolling  co\mtry  with  only  a  few  monadnocks 
rising  here  and  there  as  in  the  Piedmont  region  of  the  Atlantic  slope, 
and  arc  practicall}^  plains  with  all  their  advantages. 

How.  Plains  are  Formed. — Plahis  are  formed  by  the  wearing  down 
of  any  kinil  of  region  to  a  gentle  relief,  or  else  by  the  deposition  of 
materials  brought  down  from  higher  rc^gions.  IMost  plains  are  of  this 
latter  sort.  Some,  such  as  the  "high  plains"  of  Colorado  and  Texas 
or  the  basin  plains  of  Utah  and  Nevada,  have  been  formed  by  streams 
which  flow  out  from  the  neighboring  moimtains.  When  the  streams 
lose  their  velocity  on  reaching  the  lowlands,  they  at  once  begin  to 
deposit  their  load  of  gravel  and  silt.  They  thus  block  their  own 
chaimels  and  arc  forced  to  flow  in  new  com-ses.  Thus  during  the 
lapse  of  ages  they  flow  now  here  and  now  there  imtil  finally  they  build 
almost  level  plains  covering  hundreds  of  thousands  of  sfjiiare  miles. 
Other  plaiiis,  s\ich  as  a  large  section  of  the  central  Ignited  States,  were 
once  part  of  the  sea  floor,  and  hence  for  millions  of  years  received  vast 
deposits  of  fine  clay  and  silt  brought  by  rivers  from  the  lands.  Then 
the  movements  of  the  earth's  cnist  finall}'^  brought  them  almost  un- 
changed to  a  level  above  that  of  the  oceans. 

Plateaus  and  Basin  Regions  as  Combinations  of  Mountains  and 
Plains. — Vast  portions  of  the  earth's  surface,  such  as  the  ])l:i,t(>aus  of 
Tibet,  Peru  and  Arizona,  and  the  basin  n^gions  of  Pei-sia  and  Utah, 
combine  the  features  of  mo\mtains  and  ]ilains.  In  the  platea\is  a 
plain  or  region  of  low  relief  has  been  uplifted,  and  streams  have  exit 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES  IN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS  81 

valleys  in  it.  Thus  tho  valleys  and  their  slopes  have  the  charaeter  of 
mountains  while  the  uplands  have  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
plains.  On  the  whole,  however,  most  plateaus  are  so  cut  up  that  they 
are  more  like  mountains  than  plains,  as  is  clearly  evident  in  the 
Allegheny  Plateau.  In  the  basin  regions,  on  the  othei-  hand,  a  moun- 
tainous countiy  has  l)een  converted  ])aitly  into  i)lains,  as  may  be 
seen  by  the  way  in  which  the  jieaks  of  iialf  bui'ied  mountains  often 
stick  up  through  great  jilains  of  giaAcl  in  parts  of  Nevada.  Often 
plateaus  and  basins  are  coml)ined  as  in  Mexico,  whei'c  Mexico  C'ity 
is  located  on  a  high  ])lateau,  but  also  in  a  Imsin  which  is  floored  with 
a  plain  of  soil  brought  down  fi'om  the  mountains. 

It  would  be  highly  profitable  to  study  the  various  kinds  of  moun- 
tains,plains, and  plateaus  in  order  to  see  how  each  exerts  its  own  special 
influence  on  man.  We  should  find  that  even  under  similar  condi- 
tions of  climate  the  mountains  vary  greatly  in  the  degree  to  which 
they  hamper  transportation  and  agriculture,  retard  education  and 
progress,  or  favor  the  sightseer  and  hunter.  We  should  find  that 
although  most  plains  have  relatively  deep  soil  and  dense  population, 
and  are  comparati^•el^'  easy  to  traverse,  the}"  differ  greatly  in  these 
respects.  I'nfortunately,  the  limits  of  space  oblige  us  to  confine 
our  study  to  the  contrast  between  the  life  of  typical  mountains  and 
typical  plains.  We  shall  talk  chiefly  about  the  mountains,  however, 
because  this  is  the  only  chapter  where  their  influence  is  fully  dis- 
cussed. Plains  are  so  important  that  they  form  the  chief  theme  in 
the  chapters  on  Soil  and  Agi'icultui'e. 

Reasons  for  the  Contrast  between  Mountains  and  Plains. — 
(1)  The  Effect  of  Altitude. — There  are  three  chief  reasons  why  the  life 
in  mountains  differs  from  that  in  plains,  namely,  (1)  altitude,  (2) 
climate,  and  (3)  relief.  Altitude  alone  is  relatively  unimportant. 
People  with  heart  trou])le,  to  l)e  sure,  cannot  live  even  at  an  altitude 
of  5000  feet,  and  most  people  find  difficulty  in  l)i-cathing  at  altitudes 
of  10,000  feet  or  more.  Nevertheless  when  people  go  to  high  alti- 
tudes tile  body  soon  adapts  itself  to  the  new  conditions.  An  increase 
in  the  number  of  I'cd  corpuscles  in  the  l)lood  enables  it  to  absorb 
oxygen  mow  lapidly,  and  thus  the  rarity  of  the  air,  which  is  the  great 
difficulty  a1  higli  altitudes,  is  I'obbed  of  much  of  its  effect.  Wh(>n 
people  come  down  from  the  moimtains  this  (^xcess  if  red  corpuscles 
makes  them  feel  very  strong,  but  it  (luickly  passes  awaj'.  This 
prompt  ciiange  in  the  blood  enables  people  to  adapt  themselves  to 
any  altitude^  where  the  climate  and  relief  make  it  possible  to  get  a 
living.  Denver,  for  example,  has  become  a  gn^at  city  a  mile  above  .'^ea 
level,  Mexico  City  is  half  a  mile  liighei-,  (^uito  pi'ospers  at  an  altituiU^ 
of  nearh'  two  miles,  and  certain  \ill;igcs  in  the  Andes  and  Tibet  raise 


82  MAN'S   RlOLATloX   TO  LAM)    KoRMS 

barley  and  sliooji  nearly  throo  miles  above  the  sea.  In  each  case  a 
higii  plain  makes  it  possible  for  the  city  or  village  to  grow  tip  in  sjMte 
of  the  altitiulc. 

(2)  How  the  Climate  Differs  in  Mountains  and  I^lains. — In  the 
loftiest  villages  of  tlu^  An(l(>s  and  Tibet  the  villagei-s  thhik  little  about 
the  altitude,  bul  iiiucli  nbout  the  climate.  This  is  because  altitude 
influences  clhnate  in  three  main  Avays:  (a)  Tem]ierat\n-e  decreases 
with  :iltitu<lo.  In  the  free  air  the  fnll  I?  nbout  1°  F.  for  100  foot  of 
nlliludi'  ill  siiiiinirr  niiil  I'oi-  .")()0  tret  in  winter.  The  l';ill  is  iii(>r(> 
marked  where  mountains  rise  stee])ly  almAc  a  lowland  as  in  the  Alps, 
than  in  regions  like  the  (Ircat  Plains  where  one  can  rise  from  sea  level 
to  Denver  almost  without  noticing  any  grade.  Nevertheless  the 
average  yearly  temperature  at  Deiucr  is  about  ;^°  1ow(m-  than  at 
Indianapolis,  which  Ues  in  the  same  latitude  but  4500  feet  lower. 
(6)  The  greater  the  altitude  the  more  variable  is  the  temperatui-e. 
The  rarity  of  the  air  allows  the  sun's  heat  to  pass  through  it  readily 
and  thus  the  earth's  surface  is  quickly  warmed,  but  the  same  con- 
(htioii  also  allows  the  earth's  heat  to  pass  away  rapidly  at  night,  so 
that  there  are  great  extremes.  The  relief  also  causes  vai-iability, 
for  cool  air  may  flow  down  a  valley  at  night  while  warm  air  lises  by 
day.  (c)  Mountains  are  also  more  cloudy  and  lainy  than  plains, 
for  the  currents  of  air  that  approach  them  nuist  rise.  Henc(^  the  air 
is  cooled  and  its  water  vapor  condenses  into  clouds  and  rain.  On  a 
perfectly  clear  day  in  tlu^  jolains  of  California  one  can  often  see  great 
banks  of  clouds  enshrouding  the  crests  of  the  Sierras  only  10  miles 
to  the  east.  While  the  dry  brown  grass  of  the  plains  shows  that  no 
rain  has  fallen  for  months,  the  dense  pine  forests  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  httle  brooks  flowing  amid  rich  green  grass  or  thick  biakcs  of 
flourishing  bushes  betoken  rain  in  plenty. 

(3)  The  Great  Importance  of  Relief. — In  tlu^  rest  of  this  chapter  we 
shall  confine  oui-selves  largelj^  to  relic^f,  the  third  of  the  great  reasons 
for  the  contrast  in  the  life  of  mountains  and  ])lahis,  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  climate  and  relief  work  together  so  closely  that  they 
often  cannot  be  s('])arated. 

The  Uneven  Distribution  of  Population  in  Mountain  Regions 
and  the  Even  Distribution  in  Plains:  Switzerland  versus  Iowa. — 
One  of  the  conditions  where  the  effect  of  relief  alone  can  be  most 
clearly  seen  is  in  the  different  distribution  of  the  po]ndation  among 
mountains  and  in  plains.  Fig.  30  is  a  map  of  Switzerland  showing  the 
density  of  jiopulation.  Notice  how  inciiularly  the  people  are  scat- 
tered. There  is  a  great  concentiation  in  the  northern  lowland, 
where  most  of  the  people  live,  while  among  the  mountains  the  inhab- 
itants arc  distributed  here  and  there  Avithout  apparent  order,  but 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES  IN   MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS 


83 


really  along  the  main  valleys.     Contrast  this  with  Fig.  31,  a  similar 
map  of  the  plain  of  Iowa.     How  evenly  the  people  are  distributed! 


INHABITANTS  PER 
SQUARE  MILE 

I  I  Under  5 

I  I  5  to  65 

t-oY  I  65  to  133 

1 133  to  324 

I  Over  32t 


0     10    go    30    40    50 


Fig.  30. — Densitj-  of  Population  in  Switzerland. 
An  example  of  extraordinary  diversity  due  to  relief.     Contrast  with  Fig.  31. 


NHABITANTS    PER 

SQUARE  MILE 

5  to  63    [  I 

65  to  loo  M        \ 

155  to  3-'4^^ 


^////''/////''/''Vv^y' 


I'iG.  31. — DciLsity  of  Population  in  Iowa. 

.\n  example  of  extraordinarily  even  distribution  of  population  in  a  plain,  with  a  few  dense 
areas  due  to  rivers.  No  county  in  the  State  has  a  density  of  less  than  22  per  S(iuare  mile,  or 
over  200. 


Practically  every   township   of   30   s(iuar(>   miles   contains   al)()ut   a 
thousand.     A  few  cities  have  grown  up,  but  are  quite  evenly  spaced 


84 


MAN'S  RELATION  TO   LAND   FORMS 


throughout  the  State  and  jiot  concpntratcd  in  nuv  sc^ction,  as  in  Swit- 
zerland. Tlio  reason  is  obvious:  In  Switzerlatid  ])e()])le  cannot  live 
in  any  large  nuinhcrs  in  the  rugged  i)ortions  and  must  concentrate 
in  the  valleys;  in  Iowa  the  plain  is  so  uniform  that  people  can  live 
aiiy\vh(>r(\ 

The  Sparsity  of  Population  in  Mountains  Compared  with  the 
Density  in  Plains. — There  is  a  strong  contrast  between  moinitains 
and  ))lains  in  the  dotsiii/  of  po]i\ilation  as  well  as  in  the  distrilaition. 
This  is  due  to  the  coinl)ined  effects  of  rehef  and  clunate.  In  Califor- 
nia there  is  a  beautiful  district  called  Alpine  County.  In  1890  its 
population  numbered  GG7,  or  a  little  less  than  one  for  ev(>ry  square 


INHABITANTS  PER  SQUARE  MILE 

r^:   ■■        I    5  to  65 
f-E-^vfi:^    65  to  155 

^■H    Over  324 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


111 


Distiiinaio]!  of  I'opuhitioii  in  Sc'nlhuul. 


mile.  In  1000,  this  had  fallen  to  500.  in  lOlO  to  309,  and  in  1920 
to  2\'A.  Some  SO  miles  west  of  Alpine  County,  Sacramento  County, 
though  only  a  httle  larger,  contained  1(),()0()  jn'oplc  in  1S9(),  oi'  more 
than  10  to  the  sfjuare  mile,  while  in  H)()()  the  population  munlx'red 
40,000,  in  1010,  (iS.OOO,  and  in  1920,  91,000.  Why  sjiould  one 
county  contain  only  one  pei-son  in  .Ss(|iiaic  miles  and  show  little  or 
no  prospect  of  c(»nlaining  more,  while  the  other  contains  92  jx'ople 
to  the  s(juarc  mile?  Tlu;  answer  is  simply  that  .\lpine  County  is 
one  of  the  most  moimtainous  parts  of  the  I'nited  States,  while 
Sacramento  County  is  a  smooth  plain. 

Such  contrasts  between  mountains  and  plains  occur  e\cty\\liere. 
In  India  the  little  country  of  Blmlati  on  the  rugged  .'^oulhein  slope  of 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES   IN   MOUNTAINS  AND   PLAINS  85 

the  Himalayas  contains  only  12  people  per  sq\iare  mile,  while  close 
at  hand  the  level  plain  of  Bengal  has  over  500.  Even  where  the  con- 
trast between  mountains  and  plains  is  less  striking  there  are  great 
differences  in  the  density  of  the  population.  For  instance,  in  Fig.  32 
notice  how  the  peo])le  of  Scotland  are  concentrated  either  in  the 
southern  lowland  from  Glasgow  to  Edinburgh  and  Dundee,  or  else 
along  the  plains  of  the  eastern  coast  where  Aberdeen  is  located.  The 
rugged  highlands  both  in  the  north  and  south  have  so  few  people  that 
they  appear  ahnost  white  on  the  map. 

The  Advantage  of  Plains  over  Mountains  in  Transportation. — 
We  come  now  to  a  condition  where  tlu^  rclii'f  of  the  moinitains  is  an 
especially  heavy  handicap.  In  mountainous  regions  the  roatLs  and 
even  the  railroads  must  go  up  and  do^^•n  hill.  Everyone  knows  how 
hard  it  is  to  haul  a  heavy  load  uphill.  The  load  not  only  has  to  be 
carried  forward,  but  nuist  be  lifted  against  the  pull  of  gravity.  Another 
difficulty  in  a  rugged  country  is  that  the  roads  must  often  win<l  in 
broad  curves  or  go  out  of  their  way  to  follow  valleys,  so  that  they 
tra\'erse  much  gi'eater  distances  than  are  necessary  on  a  plain.  Com- 
pare the  two  parts  of  Fig.  33.  The  southern  part  with  the 
straight  railroads  belongs  to  the  level  plain  of  southern  New  Jereey, 
while  the  northern  part  with  the  cur^'ed  roads  is  in  the  rugged 
portion  of  that  State. 

The  hard  ^\•ork  and  long  distances  on  mountain  roads  combine  to 
cause  three  other  disadvantages  which  are  not  felt  in  plahis.  Firet, 
ti*ansportation  is  slower.  For  example,  on  the  level  stretch  between 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  a  fast  train  on  the  Pennsylvania  Pailrotul 
travels  50  miles  an  hour,  while  on  the  mountainous  stretch  where 
the  road  climbs  the  Allegheny  I''scari)ment  over  the  Horseshoe  Curve 
between  Altoona  and  Johnstown  the  average  speed  is  only  20  miles 
per  hoiu'.  Second,  the  st(H'p(>r  gradi^s  cause  greater  wear  and  tear 
on  l)otli  annuals  and  engines.  In  rugged  \'ermont  an  automobile 
is  considered  "  junk  "  after  traveling  half  as  many  miles  as  in  level 
Kansas.  Third,  the  uphill  uoik,  the  slow  speed,  and  the  wear 
and  tear  all  increase  the  cost  of  transportation  among  the  moinitains 
as  com])arcHl  with  plains.  For  instance  an  automobile  that  makes  16 
miles  on  a  gallon  of  gasoline  in  Nevada,  can  make  only  0  wlu^n  it 
clhnbs  the  Sierras  into  California.  Monnn'er,  the  cost  of  making  and 
especially  of  re])airing  roads  and  railroads  is  often  ten  tunes  as  nuich 
in  the  mountains  as  in  the  level  i)lains. 

Lookhig  at  th(>  matter  from  thv  stand]ioint  of  jilains  we  find  that 
they  have  the  following  advantages:  tiiey  ])erniit  trans^iortation 
routes  (1)  to  avoid  hard  grades,  (2)  to  go  in  any  direction,  and  to 
follow  straight  lin(>s,  (3)  to  form  as  dense  a  network  as  the  inhabitants 


86 


MAX'S    inil.ATloX    To    T.ANI)    I'ollMS 


■•Cape  M;iy  City 


Fit;.  33. — Kiiilroad  Map  of  New  Jcrsej^. 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES   IN   MOUNTAINS   AND   PLAINS  87 

require,  (4)  to  be  adapted  to  rapid  travel,  and  (5)  to  be  built  and 
maintained  cheaply. 

Why  the  Means  of  Transportation  Differ  in  Mountains  and 
Plains. — The  most  striking  difference  between  the  means  of  trans- 
portation used  in  mountains  and  plains  is  that  in  the  mountains 
primitive  methods  are  still  used  while  in  the  plains  advanced  methods 
have  made  much  more  progress.  Even  in  the  most  ci\dlized  coun- 
tries like  Switzerland  pack  trains  are  still  coimuon  among  the  moun- 
tains, while  in  the  plains  of  the  same  countries  they  are  unknown.  In 
plains  it  is  possible  to  build  numerous  railroads  and  also  trolley  roads 
not  only  because  the  cost  of  construction  is  moderate,  but  because 
there  are  many  people.  Not  only  are  there  more  plainsmen  than 
moimtaineere,  but  they  produce  and  consume  more  per  capita,  and 
hence  provide  the  railroads  with  more  business.  Even  the  airplane 
is  far  more  adapted  to  plains  than  to  mountains,  because  it  requires 
broad  level  spaces  in  which  to  land. 

Since  railroads  are  less  numerous  in  mountain  regions  than  in 
plains,  the  mountaineers  must  rely  upon  roads  and  often  must  carry 
their  products  long  distances.  What  is  true  of  railroads,  how- 
ever, is  also  true  of  roads.  In  the  plains  they  can  be  built  easily  and 
cheaply  and  there  are  many  people  among  w^hom  to  divide  the  cost. 
In  the  mountains  they  are  expensive  and  there  are  few  people  to  bear 
the  cost.  Therefore  many  parts  of  the  mountains  have  no  good  roads, 
and  wagons  cannot  be  used.  Hence  goods  must  be  transported  on 
pack  annuals,  which  can  follow  rough  trails  that  require  no  expense 
for  their  const niction.  The  animals  that  have  been  domesticated  for 
this  purpose  vary  from  place  to  place. 

This  difference  in  the  means  of  transportation  does  even  more  than 
the  steep  grades  and  the  gi'eater  distances  to  make  transportation 
more  costly  in  the  mountains  than  in  the  plains.  For  example,  it 
costs  about  two  cents  to  carry  a  ton  of  freight  a  mile  on  a  level  rail- 
road. To  caiTy  a  ton  the  same  distance  on  the  backs  of  horses  among 
the  mountains  often  costs  from  $1  to  $5.  It  may  pay  to  cany  cloth 
long  distances  by  such  expensive  methods.  It  rarely  pn.ys  to  cany 
cheap,  hea\y  articles  like  iron.  If  grain  were  carried  from  Illinois  to 
New  York  by  this  expensive  method  it  would  cost  at  least  S20  to  S30 
a  bush(>l. 

An  Example  of  the  Effect  of  Mountain  Transportation. — Some- 
times the  (liflicuhy  of  transportation  among  the  nunnilains  leads  to 
peculiar  kinds  of  law-breaking.  For  instance,  in  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  other  places  in  the  southern  Ajipalachian  Alomitains  there 
used  to  be  many  "moonshiners"  and  there  are  still  some  who  distill 
whisky  illegally.      They  need  ready  money;  the  com,  \\  hicli  is  their 


88 


MAN'S   RELATION   TO   LAND   FORMS 


HUMAN   ACTIVITIES   IN   MOUNTAINS   AND   PLAINS 


89 


90  MAN'S    RELATION    T(^    T.AXD    FORMS 

chief  crop,  rminot  l>o  lakoii  to  niarkot  down  in  tlio  lowlands  Ixraiiso 
thpiv  aiv  Ui)  j!;u(>il  roads.  The  prkv  at  which  the  corn  would  sell  would 
not  ])ay  a  (jiiartcr  of  the  cost  of  tiTinsiiortation. 

If  the  same  corn  is  made  hito  whisky  the  resulting  prochict  is  only 
one-thirtioth  as  Inilky  as  the  corn.  The  cost  of  transportation  is  thus 
reduced  so  that  the  mountahieer  can  cany  his  i)roduct  to  the  lowlands 
and  sell  it  at  a  ]irofit.  This  fact  has  caused  the  mountaineers  to 
break  the  law  for  many  p;enerations.  When  the  government  col- 
lected a  tax  on  whisky  the  "moonshiners"  felt  that  it  was  not  right  to 
take  away  their  profit  on  the  only  ])roduct  that  they  could  take  to 
the  lowlands  and  sell  for  cash.  AMien  the  sale  of  whisky  was  com- 
pletely forbidden,  the  moinitaineers  felt  that  a  still  gi'eater  injustice 
was  done  them.  Tims  for  manj^  years  they  have  broken  the  law 
because  the  mount nins  niak(>  trans^iortation  so  difficult. 

Difficulties  of  the  Farmer  in  Rugged  Regions:  (1)  Rapid  Erosion. — 
The  farm(>r  in  rugged  regions  is  at  a  disadvantage  because  he  lives 
in  a  region  of  erosion.  Ever^'  rain  carries  away  some  of  the  soil, 
especially  when  the  fields  have  been  freshly  plowed.  In  the  Caro- 
linas,  Georgia,  and  other  Southern  States  the  Appalachian  foothills 
have  suffered  almost  in-eparable  harm  in  this  way.  lender  the  influ- 
ence of  unwise  cultivation  the  soil  of  hundreds  of  farms  has  been 
gullied  so  that  the  fields  are  rmned.  A\'here  the  slopes  are  fairly 
gentle  this  difficult}^  can  be  overcome  by  plowing  so  that  all  the 
fuiTows  are  horizf)nt.al  and  the  rain  water  stantls  in  them  instead  of 
running  down  them.  This  is  called  contour  plowing  because  the 
furrows  run  horizontally  like  the  contoin-  hues  on  a  map.  The  wash- 
hig  away  of  the  soil  by  the  rain  and  also  by  landslides  and  avalanches 
is  doubly  harmfid  for  the  material  carried  from  tlu>  fields  is  often 
spread  out  on  the  valley  flooi-s  and  tlu-n^  for  a  time  ruins  other  fields. 

(2)  Thin  Rock]/  Soil. — Althou^ii  moic  soil  is  actually  formed  in 
motmtain  regions  than  in  plains,  so  much  is  carried  away  by  (n-osion 
that  the  remaining  soil  is  thin  and  rocky.  Among  the  Himalayas,  for 
('xami)le,  the  iields  are  so  rocky  that  each  year  after  they  have  been 
plowed,  women  go  about  picking  up  the  stones  and  throwing  th(>m 
over  their  shoulders  into  baskets  strapped  to  their  backs.  Tlu^y 
have  done  this  for  centuries,  yet  the  stones  are  still  numerous,  for 
new  ones  are  ])lowed  up  or  brought  down  by  the  streams. 

(3)  Lack  (if  Ld'cl  Spaces:  Terraces. — Another  great  difficulty  of 
the  mountain  farmer  is  the  scarcity  of  level  places  for  fields.  lie  uses 
the  \;illi'\'  bottoms,  but  they  do  not  prox'ide  space  ciiouuh.  To  get 
more  land  lie  must  construct  tenaces  on  the  iiillside.  In  countries 
like  China  and  .hi|)an  this  has  been  done  on  an  eiioiiiious  scale. 
W'IkjIc  mountain  .-iides  arc  often  cuwrcd  with  lerracci  where  walls  o 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES   IN    MOUNTAINS  AND   PLAINS  91 

or  10  feet  high  have  been  iMiilt  up  in  order  to  form  terraces  20  or  30 
feet  wide.  The  labor  of  making  «uch  terraces  and  of  keephig  them  in 
repair  is  so  great  that  it  helps  to  keep  the  mountain  people  poor. 

Cattle  Raising  among  the  Mountains. — Since  ordinary  farmhig 
is  so  difficult,  mountaineers  try  to  make  a  living  in  other  ways,  for 
instance,  by  keeping  cattle  and  sheep.  These  animals  can  easily 
graze  on  slopes  too  steep  for  cultivation.  They  can  also  be  pastured 
on  the  rich  grass  which  covers  the  valley  floore  and  the  mountain 
sides  above  the  tree  line.  In  California  in  June  along  the  roads  lead- 
ing into  the  high  SieiTas,  one  must  often  pick  his  way  through  herds 
of  hundreds  of  cows  and  calves  or  through  flocks  of  stupid  sheep  that 
refuse  to  turn  out  for  the  passing  automobile.  The  annuals  are  being 
driven  to  the  high  mountains  to  graze  during  the  sunnner. 

In  Switzerland  the  mountain  meadows  are  called  "Alps,"  and  have 
given  their  name  to  the  world's  most  famous  mountains.  Every  sum- 
mer when  the  snows  disappear  the  people  of  the  lower  mountains 
move  with  their  herds  and  flocks  to  chalets  or  huts  among  the  flowery 
meadows  near  the  snow-line.  There  they  spend  the  smmner  caring 
for  the  cows  and  making  butter  and  cheese.  Such  a  life  may  be 
pleasant  for  a  while,  but  it  is  lonely  and  unstimulating,  so  that  the 
people  who  follow  it  are  apt  to  be  uneducated  and  backward. 

Tree  Crops  in  Contrast  to  the  Cereals  of  the  Plains. — In  many 
resjDects  tree  crops  are  to  the  mountains  what  grain  crops  are  to  the 
plains.  Although  the  world's  most  important  food  products  are  the 
cereals,  including  rice,  corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  they  are 
not  adapted  to  the  mountains.  They  need  fine,  deep  soil,  and  a  Avide 
acreage,  for  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  relatively  small,  being  only 
15  or  20  bushels  in  the  case  of  wheat.  In  order  to  be  profitable  they 
must  be  planted  and  reaped  by  niacliinery.  All  these  conditions 
are  met  in  the  plains,  but  not  in  the  mountains. 

With  trees  the  case  is  different.  Although  people  often  forget 
it,  trees  furnish  not  only  fruit,  but  unportant  food  crops  such  as  nuts, 
olives,  berries,  and  forage  seeds.  In  America  this  source  of  wealth 
is  as  yet  little  appreciated,  but  in  the  countries  aroimd  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  it  is  highly  unportant.  Many  kinds  of  trees  gi'ow  quite 
as  well  upon  hillsides  as  on  plains.  The  rockiness  of  the  soil  makes 
no  difference  in  their  cultivation,  for  the  land  does  not  have  to  be 
plowed.  ]\Ioreover,  since  there  is  no  plowing  the  soil  is  not  washe<l 
awaj'  so  easily  as  where  the  crops  are  planted  anew  each  A'ear.  The 
roots  of  the  trees  also  hold  the  soil  in  ])la('c,  ^\  liilc  thcii'  IcaAcs  increase 
its  depth. 

Because  of  these  conditions  tree  cro]is  are  highly  jn'ofitable  in 
regions  of  nigged  relief.     For  examiilc  in  France  and  Italy  rough, 


92  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   LAM)   FORMS 

rocky  hillsidos  plantrd  wit.li  chostimt  t.nn's  aro  sojiiotimos  worth  as 
luiicli  JHT  acre  as  our  best  wheat  lands.  Wahnits,  {'hostniits,  beech- 
nuts, jx'oan  nutKS,  filberts,  and  biiticnuits  all  furnish  excellent  food 
for  man  and  can  be  raised  on  stcc])  slopes.  So  too,  can  the  olive, 
which  fm-nishes  the  l)est  of  vegetal )le  oils. 

Aconis,  likewise,  gi"ow  admirably  on  stecj)  sloiu's.  Althoujih 
they  are  not  a  particularly  good  food  for  man,  the  Kurds  in  Turkey 
often  grind  them  into  floin-  for  bread.  For  pigs,  however,  they  are 
excellent.  C!reat  herds  are  fattened  on  them  in  llic  mountains  of 
Serbia.  In  Spain  ]ii<rs  arc  also  tui-ncd  into  the  .•hcstnut^  orciiards 
to  fatten  on  the  nuts  that  have  been  droi)pcd  while  the  crop  i.s  being 
harvested.  Sometimes  the  orchards  are  located  on  such  steep  slopes 
that  farmers  dar(>  not  tuin  in  the  larg(\  fat  i)igs  for  fear  that  they  niaj' 
lose  their  footing  and  roll  down. 

Peaches  and  especially  apjiles  also  grow  excellently-  in  rugged 
land.  They  are  to-day  the  chief  tree  crop  of  the  United  States. 
Millions  of  acres,  however,  might  be  used  for  other  tree  crops  and 
thus  the  mountain  people  might  greatly  increase  their  prosperity  and 
at  the  same  time  add  to  the  wealth  of  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Lumbering  as  a  Mountain  Industry. — Trees  for  lumber  as  well 
as  for  food  will  always  ])e  more  abundant  in  rugged  regions  than  hi 
plains.  Many  of  the  plains  that  are  now  densely  populated  were 
once  covered  with  trees,  but  to-day  in  temperate  latitudes  forests 
are  largely  restricted  to  nigged  areas  which  cannot  be  used  for  farm- 
ing. Such  forest  lands  are  found  in  northern  New  England,  the 
Adirondacks,  the  Ap])alachians,  antl  the  northern  parts  of  IMichigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  IMinnesota.  The  Ozark  region  of  Arkansas,  parts  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  much  of  the  Sierra,  Cascade,  and  Coast 
ranges  are  likewise  forested.  In  Europe  the  words  "forest"  and 
"moimtain"  are  almost  synonymous.  The  terms  "Black  Forest"  and 
"Black  Mountains"  are  both  used  for  the  same  part  of  (lermanj'. 
Similarly  in  France  the  forests  have  been  cut  away  so  fully  in  all 
parts  except  the  rugged  uplands  that  a  term  like  Argonne  means 
both  forest  and  highland. 

Until  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  lunil)er  and  lirewood  were 
abimdant  in  the  United  States  because  new  lowland  areas  were  being 
cleared  for  settlement.  Now,  however,  exce])t  for  some  of  the  sandy 
pine  lands  of  the  South,  the  main  reliance  of  the  country  is  almost 
wholly  the  forests  of  rugged  areas.  Even  there  so  many  trees  have 
been  cut  and  new  growth  is  so  slow  that  the  su])]-)ly  of  lumber  does  not 
keep  pace  with  the  demand.  Hence  the  price  of  many  khids  of  wood 
is  five  or  ten  times  as  mui^h  as  thirty  years  ago.  This  would  be  an 
advantage  to  the  people  of  the  mountains,  but  \nifortuTiately  for  them 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES  IN   iMOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS  93 

keen  business  men  of  the  cities  bought  up  enormous  tracts  of  forests 
before  tlic  country  in  o-onoral  realized  their  vaUie. 

Wasteful  Lumbering  Methods. — In  the  past  the  method  of 
lumbering  has  been  very  wjist(^fui.  The  owners  of  timber  tracts  have 
often  desired  merely  to  get  rich  as  ciuickly  as  possible.  Therefore  they 
have  sent  crews  of  woodcutters  into  the  forests  with  orders  to  cut  down 
everythhig  that  is  large  enough  to  be  of  any  ])ossible  use.  As  the 
large  trees  fall  they  crash  into  the  yoimg  ones  and  ruin  them.  Only 
the  main  tmnks  of  the  trees  are  used.  The  branches  and  the  upper 
third  of  the  tnndv  are  wasted  because  transportation  in  forests  and 
especially  in  rugged  regions  is  so  difficult  that  it  does  not  pay  to  bring 
anything  ])ut  the  best  timl^er  out  to  the  plains.  Wlien  the  ])ranches 
become  dry,  a  stroke  of  lightning,  a  match,  a  lighted  cigar,  or  a 
camper's  fire  may  start  a  forest  fire  that  Imrns  down  the  timlxn*  for 
hundreds  of  square  miles.  This  is  a  terrible  disaster,  not  only  because 
of  the  trees  that  are  destroyed  and  the  jieople  that  are  rendered  home- 
less, but  because  the  humus  of  the  soil  is  bununl  wy).  In  rugged  re- 
gions the  remainder  of  the  soil  thus  left  exposed  is  likely  to  be  rapidly 
carried  away  by  the  rain. 

Forest  Conservation. — -To-day  a  new  method  of  lumbering  is  ])eing 
introduced.  People  have  l^egun  to  realize  that  if  there  were  no  ])er- 
manent  forest  reserves  we  should  l)e  put  to  great  stress  to  find  a  sul)- 
stitute  for  wood.  Our  condition  would  be  like  that  of  China,  where 
the  density  of  population  and  the  dryness  of  the  climate  in  spring 
and  fall  cause  the  country  to  have  almost  no  forests.  Wood  is  there 
so  scarce  that  many  people  have  difficulty  in  getting  enough  for  doors, 
fiooi's  and  furniture  for  their  houses,  and  the  coffins  for  tluMuselves 
which  they  buy  yeai*s  before  they  die.  So  scarce  is  wood  that  the 
houses  themselves  are  generally  made  of  adobe,  stone,  or  brick. 

In  spite  of  this  danger  we  arc  still  cutting  the  trees  reckk^ssly. 
Nevertheless  the  good  example  of  European  count lic^s,  such  as 
France  and  Sweden,  is  beginning  to  be  ado])ted  unckn"  the  leadership 
of  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  The  Forest  S(>rvice  l)elieves 
that  the  great  forests  ought  not  to  enrich  a  f(>\v  individuals,  but  should 
benefit  everyone.  To  accomplish  this  they  must  ])e  ownetl  by  the 
government,  but  there  must  ])e  the  freest  oi)])ortunity  for  everyone 
to  buy  timber  at  reasonable  tcn-ms.  Accordingly  hu-gi>  tracts  of 
rugged  land  in  all  parts  of  the  country  (sec  Fig.  3G)  have  been  set 
aside  by  the  national  or  State  governments  as  forest  rcsen'cs.  Their 
total  area  in  1918  was  nearly  200,000,000  acres,  or  more  than  tht> 
area  of  all  the  Atlantic  States  from  Virginia  northward,  including 
Pennsylvania.  In  these  tracts  everythhig  is  jilanned  so  that  bad  trees 
are  eliminated,  good  ones  are  planted,  anil  the  land   is  covered  with 


94 


MANS    RELATION    TO    LAND    lOHMS 


HUMAN  ACTIVITIES  IN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS  95 

trees  of  the  right  sort  to  maintain  a  steady  supply  of  lumber.  Anyone 
who  chooses  may  buy  standing  timl)ei'  i^rovided  he  cuts  only  the 
larger  trees,  and  fells  them  so  that  they  do  not  damage  the  smaller 
ones.  He  must  also  dispose  of  the  l)i-anch(^s  and  useless  to])s  so  that 
there  is  no  risk  of  devastating  fires. 

In  addition  to  all  this,  the  Forest  Service  maintains  a  corps  of  for- 
est rangers  and  fire  wardens.  High  on  a  mountain  top  a  warden 
often  lives  all  sunmier  miles  from  the  nearest  neighbor.  Every  day 
at  certain  hours  he  goes  to  points  of  vantage  and  searches  with  his 
field  glass  for  signs  of  smoke.  If  he  sees  signs  of  a  forest  fire  he 
telephones  to  the  foresters  down  in  the  valley,  and  a  gang  of  fii-e 
fighters  at  once  starts  to  put  out  the  blaze.  An  aeroplane  jiatrol 
in  some  places  also  aids  in  discovering  fires. 

Why  Civilization  is  More  Backward  among  Mountains  than  in 
Plains. — (1)  Scarcity  of  Good  Artisans. — ^A  progressive  community 
must  contain  not  only  farmer's,  lumbermen,  and  laborers,  but  skillful 
artisans,  manufacturer,  and  professional  people.  Among  the 
mountains  tliis  is  almost  impossible.  Take  the  case  of  the  most 
necessary  kind  of  artisan,  a  carpenter.  In  the  plauis  he  usually  does 
nothing  but  carpenter  work,  and  hence  is  highly  skillful.  Among  the 
mountains,  however,  there  are  so  few  people,  they  are  so  scattered, 
and  the  scarcity  of  good  soil  keeps  them  so  poor,  that  little  money  is 
spent  for  new  houses  or  unprovements.  Hence  the  carpenter  can 
find  work  only  a  small  part  of  the  time.  If  he  is  really  skillful  and 
ambitious  the  chances  are  that  he  will  move  away  to  the  lowlands 
where  there  is  plenty  of  work.  If  he  is  less  skillful  or  has  little  energy, 
he  stays  in  the  mountains  and  perhaps  devotes  part  of  his  tune  to 
running  a  farm.  Thus  he  excels  neither  as  farmer  nor  carpenter. 
Since  he  is  not  a  particularly  good  workman  and  his  neighbors  are 
poor,  they  employ  him  only  a  few  days  when  they  are  building  a 
house  or  barn,  and  do  most  of  the  work  themselves.  This  teaches 
the  mountaineers  to  try  all  sorts  of  work,  but  it  residts  in  many  poor 
cabins  and  shacks. 

Blacksmiths,  masons,  mechanics,  plumbei-s,  and  other  artisans 
find  it  still  harder  to  get  work  among  the  mountahis,  and  hence  are 
scarcer  than  carpenters.  Therefore  the  mountaineer  has  to  do  abnost 
everything  for  himself,  but  because  he  nuist  do  so  many  things  he 
rarely  learns  to  do  any  of  them  unusually  well — "Jack  of  all  trades 
and  master  of  none."  It  is  the  things  that  are  done  unusually  well — 
better  than  ever  before — that  cause  the  progress  of  ci\'ilization. 

(2)  Enforced  Idleiiess. — Dining  the  winter  when  tlu>re  is  little 
farm  work,  the  mountaineers  are  often  idl(^  At  such  times  the  low- 
lander  can  often  find  work  not  far  away  in  factories,  but  this  is  diffi- 


96  MANS   RELATION    TO    LAND    I'OliMS 

ctilt  for  tho  moTmtaiiuTr.  Ho  must  stay  at  home  to  take  care  of  the 
animals,  clrar  tlic  snow,  brc^ak  out  the  roads,  get  firewood,  and  the 
Uke.  If  he  were  surrounded  by  neighbors  as  closely  as  is  the  farmer 
ill  the  rich  lowland  it  would  be  much  easier  to  hire  a  neighl)or  to  help 
with  the  chores  while  the  farmer  went  away  and  earned  money  else- 
where. Sometimes  this  is  possible,  but  if  the  nearest  neighbor  is  a 
mile  or  two  away  and  the  roads  are  heavy  with  snow  it  may  be  a 
dangerous  thing  to  leave  wife  and  children  alone.  Therefore  the 
moimtain  farmer  stays  at  home  in  the  winter  and  does  nothing  except 
his  routine  chores. 

Some  mountaineei"s  are  so  energetic,  however,  that  they  engage 
in  occupations  such  as  the  woodworking  of  Switzerland  and  the  Black 
Fort'st.  Shice  there  is  plenty  of  wood  around  them,  the  ])e()])le  have 
taken  to  can'ing  it  into  all  sorts  of  toys  for  childnni  and  also  into 
elaborate  patterns  such  as  clock  cases  and  paneling  for  churches. 
The  women  often  make  lace  or  embroideiy.  Woodworking,  and 
embroidery,  like  the  moonshine  whisky  described  earlier,  all  represent 
a  high  value  in  a  small  compass,  and  can  easily  be  transported  out  of 
the  moimtaiiis.  The  mountaineers  really  export  their  skill,  their 
raw  material  being  of  little  or  no  value.  Even  so,  the  expense  of 
marketing  their  products  leaves  the  mountaineei-s  a  return  much 
smaller  than  that  of  the  lowland(^r  for  equally  good  work. 

(3)  Professions. — A  large  part  of  the  new  ideas  of  a  conuuunity 
come  from  its  professional  people,  its  teachers,  clergymen,  lawyers, 
and  doctors.  Among  the  mountains  they  are  und(M-  the  same  sort  of 
disadvantage  as  the  artisans.  As  the  population  is  witlely  scattered, 
the  schools  and  churches  are  small,  and  can  pay  only  the  most  meager 
salaries.  The  schools  are  in  session  only  a  few  months  each  year, 
and  church  services  are  held  only  occasionally.  Only  a  few  p(M)ple 
are  within  reach  of  the  lawyer  and  doctor  who  settle  in  a  moimtain 
valley. 

Shice  the  eaniings  of  ])r()fessioiuil  peojile  luv  small,  it  is  generally 
necessary  to  eke  theiu  out  by  engaghig  in  sonu>  otiier  occupation 
part  of  the  lime.  Tlu>  teacher  juay  be  also  a  car]ienter,  the  lawyer 
a  blacksmith,  and  the  minister  a  mason,  and  all  may  carry  on  a  little 
farming.  Naturally  such  men  do  not  have  much  time  iOi-  study  and 
the  imi)rovement  of  their  minds;  nor  much  money  to  Iniy  the  books 
and  make  the  journeys  to  conventions  that  are  essential  if  they  are  to 
keep  up  in  their  professions.  Moreover,  it  is  no  easy  life  for  a  physi- 
cian, for  exam])le,  to  have  to  take  long  rides  on  hors(^back  in  darkness 
and  storm  over  ]ioor  roads  or  trails,  and  then  be  paid  barely  enough 
to  live  on.  Unless  teachers,  ministers,  lawyers,  and  physicians  are 
working  solely  for  the  good  they  can  do,  tlux^e  who  have  spent  nnich 


HUMAN   ACTIVITIES  IN   MOUNTAINS  AND   PLAINS  97 

time  and  money  in  preparing  for  tlunr  professions  arc  unwilling  to 
pass  their  lives  in  lonely  places  where  the  tlifhciilties  are  so  great  and 
the  rewards  so  few.     Hence  the  mountains  lose  and  the  plains  gain. 

Why  Mountaineers  are  Bolder  than  Plainsmen. — Mountaineers 
are  generally  bolder  than  the  people  of  ])lains.  This  is  partly  because 
they  are  strong  and  healthy,  but  also  because  they  have  many  exper- 
iences which  never  come  to  lowlanders.  A  mountain  boy  has  no 
fear  of  wild  animals  because  he  often  sees  them.  He  dares  to  take 
off  his  clothes  and  wade  through  a  cold  turbulent  stream  that  would 
give  the  city  boy  a  bad  fright  and  make  hmi  sick  from  the  chill.  The 
mountaineer  is  also  bold  because  he  frequently  undergoes  such  hard- 
ships as  tramping  a  scoi'e  of  miles  in  a  vain  search  for  game,  or  spend- 
ing the  night  alone  in  the  woods  when  he  hunts  for  stray  cattle  on  the 
unfenced  mountainside. 

Again,  in  backward  regions  poverty  often  makes  the .  mountaineer 
bold  and  quarrelsome,  for  his  envy  of  the  richer  people  of  the  low- 
lands may  embolden  him  to  try  to  get  a  share  of  their  possessions. 
Hence  when  times  are  particularly  hard  the  mountain-  tribes  of  Persia 
and  Afghanistan,  for  example,  descend  on  horeeback  to  raid  the  farms, 
plunder  the  houses,  and  drive  off  the  cattle.  In  some  regions  such 
raids  occur  almost  every  year  at  harv^est  time.  The  lowlandere  are 
so  used  to  them  that  they  build  spscial  towers  of  sun-dried  brick  to 
which  they  run  for  refuge  when  raidei-s  are  seen.  The  boldness  of 
mountaineers  was  ilhistratcd  l)y  the  Gurkhas  from  the  Himalaj-as  in 
the  Great  War.  ]\Iore  than  any  other  soldiei-s  from  India  they  made 
the  most  daring  kind  of  raids  right  into  and  across  the  German 
trenches. 

Why  Feuds  are  Common  in  Mountains. — ^AMien  one  man  wrongs 
another  in  the  mountains  it  is  difhcult  to  get  rcxlress  through  the  law 
because  the  officials  are  usually  fai-  away  in  the  lowlands.  Among 
cowardly  peopk'  this  might  mean  that  wrongs  would  go  unrighted. 
Among  bold,  sturdy  mountaineers,  however,  it  leads  men  to  tiy  to 
right  their  own  wrongs.  Thus  if  a  man  is  muidcM'ed,  Jiis  bi-others, 
sons,  and  oth(>r  I'elativc^s  feel  that  it  is  their  duty  to  kill  the  murderer 
tluMuselves.  If  they  tlo  so,  the  relatives  of  the  nuu-derer  try  in  their 
tui'n  to  take  vengeance.  Thus  family  feuds  arise,  and  may  last  for 
many  g(Mierations.  Sometimes  a  little  quarrel  over  some  tiitle  aiouses 
l)e()])le's  anger  and  blows  are  struck.  1'lie  ([uai-rel  thus  started  may 
go  on  for  decad(^s  and  caus(>  th.e  children  and  grandchildren  and  e\-en 
the  gr(>at-grandcliildren  of  tliefiist  pair  to  lie  in  wait  by  the  roadside 
to  shoot  one  another.  Not  many  years  ago  a  Kentucky  feud  led  the 
memlxM's  of  one  family  to  conu'  down  to  the  courthouse  in  the  low  lands, 
take  a  man  out  of  jail  with  the  connivance  of  the  jailer,  and  shoot  him 


98  MAN'S  RELATION  TO  LAND  FORMS 

ill  the  ])ul)lic  sciuarc.  Such  tliiniis  would  not  happen  if  the  isohilion  of 
the  inountaius  had  not  forced  i)ooi)k'  to  look  out  for  their  own  ri}:;hts. 

Tln'  very  men  who  are  fiercest  in  cariyin^  on  feuds  often  l)e<-onic 
some  of  the  strongest  an<l  most  vahiahle  membei-s  of  the  connnmiity 
wlien  tliey  come  down  to  tlie  lowlands  and  leani  the  ways  of  more, 
advanced  conuniinit ies.  Often  indeed,  they  s\n'ixiss  those  whose 
ancestoi"s  have  had  every  advantage  for  generations.  In  Scotland 
in  ]>ast  centni-ies  the  IIij;hlanders  used  to  raid  the  Lowlands  most 
immercifiilly.  "^ro-day  the  descendants  of  the  raidei"s  are  among 
the  most  useful  and  ca])al>le  i^mi])]!'  in  the  I'ritish  l'Jii])ire. 

How  the  Mountains  Attract  the  People  of  the  Plains. — Just 
as  the  wealth  of  t.lie  ])lains  has  lonj;"  at  ti'acted  the  tx'ojjle  of  the  inoun- 
tains,  so  the  scencny  and  ]Hn"c  air  of  the  mountains  now  attract  the 
people  of  the  ])lains.  Only  the  most  hi<ihly  civilized  ])eo]ile,  however, 
have  learned  the  value  of  the  mountains  as  ])laces  for  rest  and  enjoy- 
ment durinu'  A'a-cations.  Not  more  than  a  century  or  two  ajio  ciAilizc^l 
I>e()])le  like  those  of  the  lowlands  of  I'jijrland  and  ( iermany  thought  of 
the  mountains  as  ])laces  to  he  shunned.  In  old  books  the  mountains 
are  often  refciTcd  to  as  tciTifyint;-,  <;loomy,  frightful.  I'A-en  to-day 
when  people  first  look  at  a  stee])  mountainside  they  sometimes  feel 
dizzy.  The  vast  majority  of  civilized  p(M)])le,  however,  now  regard 
the  mountains  as  a  ])leasin"e  ground.  Thousands  of  families  escape 
from  the  city  each  summer  in  order  to  gain  strength  and  ha.])])iness 
among  the  mountains.  They  want  to  enjoy  the  wildness,  clinih 
rugged  peaks,  antl  feel  the  exhilaration  of  the  view  from  a  moimtain 
top. 

In  places  like  the  Aljjs,  th(>  ^^'hite  Alounlains,  the  Adirondacks, 
and  certain  parts  of  the  Sien-as  the  peo])le  of  the  mountains  make  a 
large  part  of  their  living  by  taking  boarders,  running  hotels,  su])])ly- 
ing  niilk  and  vegetal)les,  selling  small  artich^s  made  (hu'ing  the  wintcn', 
acting  as  guides,  and  in  oilier  ways  caring  for  tourists.  In  such 
comjnunities  the  disath-antages  of  mountain  lif(>  ar(>  much  diminisluHl. 
►Since  people  no  longer  de])end  wholly  on  their  farms,  their  ]iros])erity 
increases  They  can  have  better  schools,  better  roads,  moi-e  books, 
Ixjtter  prf)f(!ssional  men  and  artisans,  and  more  advantages  in  many 
ways.  Since  they  come  in  contact  with  ])eo])le  from  many  lowland 
regions  tlicy  gain  liew  ideas,  and  their  life  is  broadened  and  dee])ened. 

QI:KST1()NS,  exercises,  and  rilOBLEMS 

1.  Compare  Fi^s.  37  and  38  until  you  arc  .sure  you  understand  how  I'i^;.  37 
by  putting  a  dot  for  each  inilhon  people,  shows  the  (lislribulion  of  i)oi)uhif  ion,  wliile 
Fig.  3S,  by  dilTcrent  grades  of  shading,  shows  tlie  dinxiti/  of  population,  that  is 
the  number  of  people  per  square  mile.     Select  four  eounlrics  or  hirge  regions  that 


HUMAN   ACTIVITIES   IN    MOUNTAINS   AND    PLAINS 


99 


100 


MANS    REr^\TIOX    TO    LAND    FORMS 


3 

a 
o 

Ph 


o 


HUMAN   ACTIVITIES   IN   MOUNTAINS  AND   PLAINS        101 

aro  jiredominantly  plains  and  four  ni)t  far  away  that  are  mountainous.  On  the 
basis  of  Figs.  37  and  38,  write  a  statistical  account  of  the  differences  in  the  dis- 
tribution and  density  of  population  in  the  two  types  of  regions. 

2.  Figs.  34  and  35  illustrate  the  effect  of  relief  on  transportation.  Contrast  the 
two  in  as  many  ways  as  j^ossible.  Describe  the  effect  on  each  of  the  modes  of 
transportation  shown  in  Fig.  34  if  tlie  grade  of  the  valley  floor  were  decidedly 
steeper. 

3.  Study  the  railroads  that  cross  the  Rockies.  Name  examples  of  lines  which 
follow  the  valleys.  Find  out  which  ones  avoid  the  valleys  and  run  along  the  high- 
land.    Exi)lain  why  this  happens. 

4.  Select  three  parts  of  the  w^orld  characterized  as  follows:  (a)  a  region  of 
plains,  abundant  rain,  and  slow  rivers;  (b)  a  region  of  gentle  relief  and  exceedingly 
low  rainfall;  (c)  a  region  of  great  relief  where  the  higher  mountains  are  always 
capped  with  snow.  List  the  difficulties  \,hich  confront  a  railroad  engineer  in  each 
of  these  places.  On  the  map  determine  how  abundant  railroads  are  in  the  places 
j-ou  have  chosen. 

5.  Make  a  diagram  to  show  the  relief  of  j^ourown  State.  Use  the  following 
scheme  of  shading:  (a)  heavy,  for  mountainous  portions;  (b)  light,  for  the  regions 
of  low  hiUs;  (c)  no  shading,  for  the  plains.  Locate  on  your  map  the  20  largest 
towns  of  the  State.  Discuss  the  relation  between  the  relief  and  the  location  of  the 
towns.  If  your  own  State  does  not  show  marked  relief,  choose  any  other  in  which 
you  are  interested. 

6.  Study  the  capitals  of  Euroiie  in  relation  to  the  relief.  Classify  them  accord- 
ing to  location  as  follows :  (a)  near  the  centers  of  plains ;  {b)  on  the  edges  of  ])lains; 
(c)  m  narrow  valleys  or  among  the  mountains.  Explain  the  reasons  for  the 
relative  numbers  of  the  different  types. 

7.  A  good  seaman  has  been  defined  as  "one  who  can  turn  his  hand  to  any  task 
and  who  can  make  the  best  use  of  any  material  he  may  happen  to  have."  Dis- 
cuss the  extent  to  which  this  is  true  of  a  mountaineer  as  compared  with  a  i)lains- 
man.  Show  specific  features  of  the  geographic  environment  which  lead  to  your 
conclusion. 


PART  IV 
MAN'S  RELATION  TO  BODIES  OF  WATER 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS 

Few  features  of  man's  geographical  surroundings  are  more  impor- 
tant than  the  division  of  the  earth's  surface  into  continents  and  oceans. 
At  first  thought  one  might  say  that  only  the  lands  are  really  necessary. 
We  Uve  on  the  lands;  their  soil  yields  food  for  man  and  l^east;  the 
lands  contain  mines  from  which  we  extract  minerals;  we  travel  chiefly 
upon  the  lands;  and  even  when  we  traverse  the  oceans  it  is  only  to 
reach  some  other  pohit  upon  the  lands.  It  would  seem  that  the 
ocean  merely  covei-s  three-fourths  of  the  earth's  surface  which  might 
otherwise  form  fertile  plains  supporting  millions  upon  millions  of 
people.  Such  a  view  is  wrong,  however,  for  the  oceans  are  as  neces- 
sary to  man  as  are  the  lands.  They  are  of  the  greatest  service  in  the 
following  five  respects:  (1)  as  a  source  of  rain;  (2)  as  rcgiilatoi-s  of 
temperature;  (3)  as  an  aid  to  health;  (4)  as  a  soin-ce  of  minerals; 
and  (5)  as  a  source  of  food.  Oceans  also  serve  (6)  as  barriers,  and 
(7)  as  carriere  of  conunerce.  In  these  two  respects  the  relation  of 
the  oceans  to  transportation  is  the  reason  for  their  profoiuul  effect 
upon  man's  life.  In  most  respects  large  lakes  act  in  the  same  wa}-  as 
oceans. 

Why  the  Oceans  are  Important. — (1)  As  a  Source  of  Water  for 
Clouds  and  Rain. — Even  in  the  heart  of  a  continent  much  of  the 
rain  consists  of  moisture  wafted  thither  l)y  winds  from  the  ocean. 
If  the  cro]:)s  dcpendcnl  only  on  moisture  evaporated  from  the  lands 
includinii  thoir  lakes  and  I'ivers,  they  would  l)c  as  scanty  as  in  deserts. 
Nohi-aska  and  the  Dakotas,  although  in  the  middle  of  a  continent, 
raise  millions  of  bushels  of  wheat  l)v  means  of  water  from  oceans 
over  lOOO  miles  away.  Practically  all  the  woild's  corn  crop  depends 
on  sununer  rains  from  oceans  500  to  ITjOO  mil(>s  away.  This  is  not 
surprising  for  two  chief  reasons:  (n)  The  evaporation  from  tlu^  huul 
js  usually  less  than  from  the  same  area  of  water,  as  is  evident  from  the 


104  MAX'S   RELATION   TO   BODIES   OF   WATER 

dampness  of  a  sea  hrcczc^  coniimnMl  with  tlu>  dnnioss  of  a  land  Itroozc; 
(6)  the  area  of  t  lie  oceans  is  two  and  a  half  t iines  that  of  the  lands,  and 
two  hinidretl  tunes  that  of  all  the  lakes,  rivci-s,  swamps,  and  other 
bodies  of  water  on  the  lands,  includinfi;  the  great  Caspian  Sea.  If  all 
the  lakes  in  the  world  should  be  evai^orated  Ihey  would  sii])])]y  only 
one-fifteenth  of  the  rain  that  falls  eaeh  year  on  the  lands. 

(2)  Ocea7is  as  Regulators  of  Temperature. — In  addition  to  sn])])ly- 
ing  moist\n-e  the  oceans  prevent  the  land  from  l)(>coniins  too  hot  or 
too  cold.  Water  becomes  warm  much  more  slowly  than  the  materials 
that  form  the  land,  and  is  correspondinp;ly  slow  in  cooling.  Moreover 
since  water  is  easily  movable  it  is  l)lown  alxnit  in  the  form  of  currents 
which  cany  warm  water  from  the  torrid  zone  toward  the  poles  and 
cold  water  from  polar  regions  toAvard  the  equator.  Because  water 
heats  and  cools  skn\ly  and  because  the  warm  and  cool  parts  are  mixed 
by  currents,  the  ocean  is  warmer  than  the  lands  in  winter  and  cooler  in 
summer.  Hence  winds  that  blow  across  the  oceans  are  warmed  by 
the  water  in  winter,  and  cooled  in  smnmer.  Thus  when  thej'  reach 
the  lands  they  make  the  sununci's  cooler  and  the  wintei-s  wanner 
than  they  would  otherwise  be.  How  great  this  effect  is  may  be  seen 
by  com])aring  Seattle,  Washington,  where  the  Pacific  Ocean  influences 
the  temperature,  with  Bismarck,  North  Dakota,  which  is  far  from 
either  ocean.  In  Januaiy  wdiile  the  farmei"s  around  Seattle  are 
plowing  in  an  average  temperature  of  about  40°  F.  for  day  and  night 
together,  those  around  Bismarck,  where  the  average  is  only  about 
7°,  can  do  little  except  feed  their  cattle  and  protect  them  from  bliz- 
zards. In  July,  on  the  contrary,  the  average  at  Seattle  is  64°  and  at 
Bismarck  70°,  so  that  Avheat  gi-ows  much  better  at  Bismarck  than  at 
Seattle.  If  there  were  no  oceans  all  parts  of  the  United  Stages 
would  have  extremes  much  gi-eater  than  those  of  Bismarck  so  that 
the  sunmici-s  would  be  unbearably  hot  and  the  winters  unbearably 
cold.     It  is  well  that  the  continents  are  surrounded  by  gi'eat  oceans. 

(3)  The  Ocean  as  an  Aid  to  Health. — The  Sea  Coast. — As  compar- 
atively few  people  sail  the  sea,  the  coast  is  the  place  where  the  ocean 
exerts  its  influence  directly  upon  the  greatest  nmnber  of  pei-sons. 
There  the  oceans  are  a  wonderful  aid  to  health  in  ii\-e  cliief  waA's: 
(a)  Extremes  of  temperature  arc  rare;  (b)  cxtnnie  diyness  is  also 
rare;  (c)  small  short-lived  changes  of  temperature  f  i(  )in  day  to  da}'  and 
even  from  horn-  to  hour  arc^  frequent ;  (d)  the  variety  and  beauty  of  the 
seashore  tem])t  i)eo})le  to  engage  in  outdoor  sports  such  as  bathing, 
fishing,  and  walking;  (c)  the  ocean  is  a  wonderful  pmufier,  and  not 
only  carries  away  but.  destroys  most  impui'ities  brought  into  it  from 
the  land. 

The  first  three  of  tliese  favorabU>  contlitions  all  arise  from  the 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  105 

winds  that  l)low  from  the  sea.  Ahnost  as  soon  as  a  land  broczo  begins 
to  cause  extreme  heat  in  summer  or  extreme  cold  in  winter,  a  sea 
breeze  brings  a  change  and  causes  the  temperature  to  moderate. 
The  only  unfavorable  effect  of  the  seacoast  upon  health  in  temperate 
latitudes  arises  from  the  fact  that  during  "  hot  spells  "  in  summer  the 
dampness  of  the  sea  makes  the  heat  harder  to  bear  than  when  the 
air  is  dry.  Prostrations  and  deaths  from  heat  in  New  York  City,  for 
example,  are  often  due  to  this  cause,  but  such  occasions  are  so  rare 
that  they  are  a  small  matter  compared  with  the  benefits  derived  from 
being  near  the  sea.  The  coml)ined  effect  of  all  five  upon  health  is  to 
cause  much  of  the  shore  from  Maine  to  Florida  to  be  lined  with  smii- 
mer  cottages. 

Recreation  on  a  Submerged  Coast. — In  Maine  the  summer  visitor 
delights  ill  the  beaut  ies  of  a  submerged  coast,  where  innumerable  deep 
bays  dotted  with  picturesque  rocky  islands  tempt  him  to  sail  and  en- 
joy their  beauty,  even  if  he  does  not  care  to  catch  the  fish  ^^'hich 
abound  in  the  cold  water.  The  intervening  peninsulas  with  their  gar- 
ment of  spicy  pine  forests  and  their  rugged  cliffs  worn  by  the  ever- 
gnawing  waves  tempt  him  to  go  on  long  walks  or  to  sit  at  the  top  of 
some  bluff  and  watch  the  dashing  waves,  or  catch  fish  from  the  rocks. 
The  materials  woni  from  the  rocky  cHffs  on  the  outer  part  of  the  pen- 
insulas and  capes  are  carried  by  the  currents  to  the  heads  of  the 
innumerable  liaj's,  and  there  form  little  beaches  where  boats  can 
safely  be  drawn  up,  and  where  on  sunny  days  the  water  may  become 
warm  enough  to  permit  l)athing. 

Recreation  on  an  Emerged  Coast. — Farther  south  in  Florida  the 
fact  that  the  coast  has  emerged  gives  rise  to  broad  sandy  beaches. 
The  surf  rolls  in  magnificently  to  the  pleasure  not  only  of  the  spec- 
tatoi-s  who  sit  in  the  sun  on  the  beach,  but  of  the  bathei-s  who  can 
enjoy  the  warm  water  for  hours  each  day.  Children  delight  to  dig 
in  the  dry  sand  near  high  tide  level,  and  watch  the  pelicans  open  tlunr 
enormous  bills.  Between  the  levels  of  high  and  low  tide  the  damp 
beach  is  so  hard  and  smooth  that  it  offcn-s  an  ahnost  ideal  place  for 
automobile  races.  Boating  is  not  so  easy  as  on  the  submerged  coasts, 
farther  north,  for  onlj^  where  streams  enter  the  ocean  can  even  small 
boats  be  kept.  When  the  boats  get  out  to  the  sea,  however,  they 
afford  the  finest  kind  of  sport  hi  catching  fish  like  the  baracuda. 

A  few  weeks  of  ocean  air  and  pleasant  recreation  on  almost  any 
seacoast  of  the  United  States  at  the  right  season  make  one  feel  full 
of  energy  and  ready  for  all  sorts  of  work.  It  must  not  be  o^Trlooked, 
however,  that  part  of  the  benefit  is  ilue  to  the  change  from  home 
conditions,  together  with  the  outdoor  life,  and  the  opportunities  for 
new  forms  of  recreation. 


106  MANS   RELATION   TO   BODIES  OF  WATER 

How  Coasts  Benefit  the  Health  of  the  Tropics. — Tii  tro]M(al  roun- 
trics  thi'  cooliii}^  clTcct  of  the  sc;i  is  csjx'ciHlly  iiu])(»rt;nit.  Winds 
from  tlio  sea  temper  tlie  coust.aiit  heat  and  make  ])eo])le  feel  miieh 
more  like  work  than  is  possil)le  for  those  wlio  live  farther  hilanil.  The 
oeean  winds  also  drive  away  the  mosciuitoes  and  other  insects  which 
are  so  great  a  menace  to  health  and  comfort.  l'"or  these  reasons  a 
snriM'isingly  large  i)art  of  the  ])eo])le  of  ('(juatorial  Africa,  for  ex:uni)le, 
have  placi'd  their  high-i)itched  cottages  along  the  shore  where  the 
afternoon  sea  breeze  serves  as  the  "  doctor." 

How  the  Ocean  Disposes  of  Sewage. — Another  important  fimetion 
of  oceans  is  their  he!])  in  dis])osing  of  sewage.  One  of  the  most  ex- 
pensive duties  of  the  modern  cities  is  to  get  rid  of  the  sewage  in  such 
a  way  that  it  will  do  no  harm.  In  general  the  sewage  is  conducted 
into  some  neighhorhig  Ixxly  of  water.  If  the  water  is  in  motion  the 
sewage  is  carried  aw^ay  and  gi-eatly  diluted.  Thus  in  a  short  time 
the  water  ]HU'ifies  itself  so  that  even  the  most  carefid  analysis  fails  to 
show  pollution.  If  sewage  is  conducted  into  a  body  of  stantling 
water  without  marked  currents,  however,  the  water  becomes  polluted 
and  may  prove  a  source  of  grave  dang(>r.  Chicago  found  this  to 
her  cost  when  she  tried  to  dump  sewage  into  one  part  of  Lake 
Michigan  and  take  drinking  water  from  another.  She  had  to  s])end 
about  $40,000,000  in  order  to  build  a  drainage  canal  dee])  enough  so 
that  the  dirty  Chicago  River,  into  which  the  sewage  pours,  would 
flow  toward  the  Mississippi  River  instead  of  toward  the  lake.  On 
the  sea  coast,  cspeciall}^  where  there  arc  strong  tides,  the  difficulties 
of  disposing  of  sewage  arc  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  some  coast 
cities  such  as  Boston,  for  example,  part  of  the  sewage  is  held  in  reser- 
voirs until  strong  outgoing  tidal  currents  have  devel()))ed.  Before 
the  timi  of  the  tide  it  has  been  carried  so  ftu"  that  it  has  bcH-ome  mixed 
with  an  enormous  body  of  ocean  water  and  has  become  harmless. 

(4)  The  Ocean  as  a  Storehouse  of  Minerals. — Since  3|  pi'r  cent  of 
the  weight  of  sea  water  consists  of  solid  niineral  matter  in  solution, 
the  ocean  serves  as  a  storehouse  of  minerals.  Every  stream  and 
river  carries  a  small  amount  of  such  material  in  solution.  AVhen 
the  water  reaches  the  sea  the  liciuid  eventually  is  eva])orated  and  goes 
back  to  the  land,  but  the  minei-al  matter  remains.  Thus  tlie  sea  has 
slowly  accumulated  a  vast  amount  of  common  salt,  lime,  potash, 
phosphorus,  and  many  other  materials.  l']ven  gold  and  silver  are 
included,  but  in  amounts  so  extremely  small  that  they  camiot  be 
recovered  at  a  profit. 

(o)  Salt. — The  only  dissolved  material  that  man  takes  from  the 
water  in  large  quantities  is  common  salt.  On  waim  sunn\-  seacoasts 
where  the  water  is  shallow,  large  ponds  are  often  banked  off  by  dykes. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  107 

Here  the  water  evaporates  until  the  salt  crystallizes  out.  On  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  near  Smyrna,  for  example,  and  on  the 
coasts  of  Central  America,  great  piles  of  white  salt  crystals  often  form 
gleaming  cones.  Most  of  the  world's  salt,  however,  comes  from  an- 
cient deposits  Hke  those  at  Syracuse  and  Stassfurt,  and  was  laid  down 
long  ago  in  salt  lakes  whose  waters  very  slowly  dried  up  in  the  same 
way  that  the  water  of  the  enclosed  ponds  on  the  seashore  now  does. 

(b)  Limesfone. — Aside  from  salt,  the  most  valual)le  mineral  in 
seawater  is  lime.  Shellfish  constantly  use  this  for  their  shells.  Some 
of  the  shells  are  thick  and  heavy  like  those  of  clams,  oysters,  and  the 
great  edible  abalone  of  the  Pacific  coast.  Others  are  beautifully 
branched  like  many  corals.  Still  others  are  so  small  and  thin  that  tlies- 
cannot  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  Such  are  those  of  the  glo]>igerina 
ooze,  a  soft  mud  which  covere  large  areas  of  the  sea  floor,  and  which 
would  form  chalk  if  converted  into  stone.  One  or  another  of  these 
kinds  of  shells  has  given  rise  to  vast  deposits  of  Imiestone.  Since 
the  sea  once  encroached  far  into  what  is  now  the  continental  interior, 
large  de]3osits  of  limestone  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  country. 
Without  them  we  should  be  at  a  loss  to  make  cement  and  concrete, 
to  obtain  lime  for  mortar  and  plaster,  and  to  find  the  flux  so  essential 
in  the  smelting  of  iron. 

(c  and  d)  Potash  and  Phosphorus. — Certain  other  valuable  mate- 
rials, although  present  in  cjuantities  too  small  to  be  profitablj^  ex- 
tracted by  man,  are  taken  from  the  seawater  by  plants  ami  animals. 
One  of  these  is  potash.  A  certahi  alga  or  seaweed  called  kelp  con- 
tains so  much  potash  that  it  is  gathered  by  seacoast  farmers  as  a 
fertilizer.  According  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Connnerce 
the  kelp  crop  on  our  Pacific  coast  would  be  worth  SI 00,000,000  per 
year  if  properly  harvested.  Another  valuable  fertilizer,  phosphorus, 
is  taken  from  the  seawater  by  fish,  and  is  found  in  their  bones  and 
scales. 

(5)  The  Ocean  as  a  Source  of  Food:  Marine  Vegetation. — Except 
wh(M-e  waves  and  cuiTcnts  are  too  violent  the  sea  floor  from  the  level 
of  high  ti(l(^  to  a  depth  of  alwut  GOO  feet  is  largely  covered  with  ])lants, 
chiefly  of  tlic  kind  called  algie.  In  deeper  water  plants  cannot  grow 
because  there  is  no  sunshine.  I'A-en  in  mid-ocean,  however,  as  far 
down  as  the  Ught  penetrates,  the  water  is  full  of  microscoi)ic  one- 
celled  plants,  small  larvae  and  other  ininut(>  animal  forms.  When  the 
"  plankton  "  dies  nnicli  of  it  sinks  so  that  cvcmi  in  mid-ocean  mimite 
bits  of  vegetable  and  animal  matt(>r  fall  constantly.  The  ocean 
vegetation  is  of  lillle  diicct  use  to  man,  l)ut  it  fui'uishes  a  vast  supply 
of  food  for  organisms  like  oysters,  sliiiinps,  and  fish,  whieli  in  turn 
arc  eaten  by  man. 


108  MAN'S   RELATION  TO   BODIES  OF   \\ATER 

How  Man  Utilizes  the  Food  in  the  Ocean  through  Fisheries. — The 

prost'nceof  ves^'tation  aiul  hciu'cof  fish  in  the  ocean  fi;ives  the  people 
of  llie  sea  coast  an  advantage  because  they  can  carry  on  fisheries  as 
well  :is  the  ordhiary  occupations  of  the  hind.  The  word  fisheries 
means  not  only  tlie  work  of  catcliing  fish,  l)ut  of  gathering  nioUusks 
or  shellfisli  Ulve  the  oyster  and  clain,  crustaceans  Uke  the  lobster  and 
crab,  and  even  mammals  like  the  whale  and  seal.  The  fisheries  of 
the  United  States  furnish  an  amount  of  food  eciual  to  nearly  half  the 
pork  consumed  in  the  country.  In  countries  like  Norway  and  Japan, 
where  the  mountains  make  farming  difficult  and  \\her('  the  deeply 
hidented  coasts  are  favf)ral>lc  to  navigation,  fish  form  the  most  im- 
Ijortant  animal  food.  In  Japan  the  traveler  is  s\u-])rised  by  the 
variety  of  ways  in  which  they  are  served,  for  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  dishes,  he  may  be  offc^red  raw  fish  with  sail  and  pe]>per,  or 
a  SOU]:)  made  of  the  water  in  which  fish  have  been  boiled.  In  our  own 
country  fish  are  used  chiefly  near  the  indented  coasts  of  the  rugged 
northeast  and  northwest,  but  form  an  im])ortant  element  of  diet  in 
most  parts  of  the  com i try. 

Shallow-water  Fisheries. — Fisheries  fall  into  two  classes  accord- 
ing to  whether  they  are  carried  on  in  shallow  waters  near  the  coast, 
or  in  deeper  waters  out  in  the  open  sea  or  on  ocean  "banks."  Many 
shallow-water  fisheries  are  concerned  with  shellfish  and  can  be  carried 
on  without  the  use  of  boats.  Clams,  for  exam]ile,  are  dug  in  large 
numbei"s  at  low  tide  on  the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  coast. 
The  oyster  "crop,"  w^hich  amounts  to  a  third  of  the  value  of  all  the 
fi;lieries  in  the  country,  is  dnnlgod  from  the  bottom  in  water  not  over 
100  feet  deep.  About  five-sixths  of  the  world's  oysters  come  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  especially  from  Cape  Cod  to 
Cape  Hatteras.  The  lobster,  which  lives  in  shallow  waters,  especiallj'- 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the  Delaware  Kivcr  to  the  Saint  Lawrcnice, 
is  so  highly  prized  that  the  United  States  has  been  oldigcnl  to  ])ass 
stringent  laws  to  consei-ve  the  sui^ply:  hence  our  chief  supply  now 
comes  from  Canada. 

The  Government  and  the  Sea  Floor. — The  animals  in  the  shal- 
low oceanic  water:*  are  so  vahiabU>  and  the  (U^nand  for  them  so  great 
that  the  government  has  Ijeen  obUged  to  hcli)  in  two  respects.  l'"irst, 
it  is  trying  to  increase  the  supply  by  prolccting  the  eggs  and  raising 
young  animals  hi  huge  (piantities  initi)  they  luv.  large  enough  to  be 
free  and  shift  for  themsehcs.  Second,  it  is  setting  aside  c(;rtahi  i)arts 
of  the  sea  floor  for  a  sort  of  imvate  ownershi]).  so  that  ])eople  may  care 
for  tiie  eggs  or  s])awn  of  the  oyster,  for  example,  and  si>e  that  the  young 
oysters  have  a  chance  to  gi'ow.  This  makes  it  wort.h  while  for  a  man 
not  only  to  place   old  oyster  shells   or  tree   branches   in    the  water 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  109 

to  provide  lodging  places  for  the  spawn,  but  also  to  hatch  oysters 
artificially  and  place  them  in  beds  on  the  sea  bottom.  He  knows  that 
the  government  will  protect  his  right  to  harvest  the  crop  that  he  has 
planted,  and  will  punish  unscrupulous  people  who  come  on  a  dark 
night  or  in  a  fog  to  steal  the  crop,  just  as  it  will  punish  the  thief  in 
a  peach  orchard. 

Salmon  Fisheries. — The  chief  shallow-water  fisheries  arc  con- 
cerned with  animals  that  live  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  and  do  not 
travel  great  distances.  Some,  however,  are  concerned  with  genuine 
fish  such  as  the  shad,  sardhie,  herring,  and  sahnon  that  travel  long 
distances  in  great  shoals  in  order  to  reach  their  feeding  gi'ound  or  to 
find  safe  places  where  they  may  lay  their  eggs  and  where  the  little 
fish  may  grow  up.  Dming  the  spa"\\niing  season  the  lower  parts  of  the 
rivers  that  empty  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  California  around  by 
Alaska  to  Japan  are  crowded  with  salmon.  So  numerous  are  the  fish 
that  great  waterwhcels  are  sometimes  arranged  so  that  as  the  current 
turns  them  they  throw  the  fish  out  into  boats.  The  rest  of  the  fish 
come  crowding  on  regardless  of  those  that  are  captured.  In  the 
cold  rivei-s  of  Alaska  multitudes  of  salmon  are  caught  by  men  who  go 
there  for  a  month  or  two  each  sununer  simply  for  that  purpose.  No 
other  fish  is  so  extensively  canned. 

Deep-sea  Fisheries. — The  deep-sea  fisheries  are  centered  in  the 
''banks,"  or  oceanic  shallows  of  three  chief  regions.  One  region 
extends  from  George's  Bank  off  Cape  Cod  to  the  banks  of  New- 
foimdland  and  Labrador.  This  is  the  fishing  ground  in  which  the 
United  States  is  chiefly  interested,  for  although  fishermen  come  there 
from  Europe  and  Canada,  the  greater  part  of  the  catch  is  made  by 
New  Englandere,  especially  by  men  from  (il()U('(>st(n-,  who  take  their 
fish  to  Boston. 

The  second  region  includes  the  banks  of  the  North  Sea,  where  the 
world's  gi-catest  fisheries  are  located.  With  these  may  be  included 
the  fishing  regions  off  the  coasts  of  Norway  near  Iceland,  Faroe,  and 
other  islands.  The  third  region  is  the  Pacific  watere  near  Japan  and 
northward,  where  thousands  of  boats  scour  the  seas  for  tlu^  fish  that 
foi'iu  the  main  animal  food  of  the  fifty  million  Japanese. 

Tiie  banks  on  which  all  these  fisheries  are  located  are  shullo\\-  places 
where  the  depth  does  not  prevent  the  light  from  reaching  the  bottom, 
and  hence  where  great  quaiititic^s  of  algic  provide  food  for  the  count- 
less small  animals  on  which  the  larger  fish  prey.  The  most  impor- 
tant fish  is  the  cod.  which  is  usually  salted  and  dried.  It  is  shipped 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  early  days  of  New  England  the 
codfish  was  so  important  that  several  times  the  colonists  would 
almost  have  starved  wilhout  it..     Therefore  it  is  fitting  tiiat  a  cod 


no  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   BODIES  OF   WATER 

should  lianp  over  tlio  cliair  of  the  Prosifloiit  of  tho  Massachusotts 
Senate. 

Location  of  Fishing  Communities. — The  world's  chief  fishhig 
comnuniities  are  all  alike  in  three  unportant  respects,  (a)  They 
are  located  in  comparatively  northern  latitudes;  (b)  they  are  in 
regions  where  apjiculturc  meets  with  special  difficulties;  and  (c) 
they  arc  upon  submerged  coasts.     Let  us  study  these  thn^e  conditions. 

(a)  EJfcct  of  Latitude. — One  of  the  reasons  why  fisheries  have 
developed  in  high  latitudes  rather  than  near  the  equator  is  that  fish 
can  easily  Iw  presen'cd  in  cool  clunates,  but  not  in  warm.  \\'hen  fish 
are  caught  far  from  land  it  is  impossible  to  dry  them.  The  only  way 
is  to  salt  them  down  in  the  ship's  hold.  This  is  successful  only 
in  high  latitudes,  for  elsewhere  the  fish  will  not  keep.  The  people  of 
the  tr()])ics  generally  catch  fish  only  for  ijmnediate  consumi)ti()n. 
Tlu^  modern  process  of  cold  storage,  however,  is  at  last  making  it 
possible  to  catch  fish  profitabty  on  a  large  scale  in  tropical  regions, 
and  thus  ojx'us  up  an  enormous  and  abnost  untouched  source  of 
food. 

A  second  reason  why  fisheries  have  developed  in  high  latitudes  is 
that  fishing  takes  a  great  deal  of  energy.  On  the  sea,  as  on  the  land, 
the  development  of  new  resources  waits  for  the  active  people  of  the 
North.  The  adventurous  spirit  of  the  northerners  seems  to  lead 
them  to  go  to  sea  out  of  sheer  curiosity  even  if  there  is  no  other  reason. 

(6)  Fisheries  and  Agriculture. — Another  reason  for  the  develop- 
ment of  fisheries  in  high  latitudes  is  that  agi'iculture  is  there  difficult. 
In  cool  northern  lands  hkc  Norway  or  Newfoundland  only  a  scanty 
living  can  be  obtained  from  agriculture,  partly  because  the  land  is 
hilly,  but  still  more  because  the  climate  is  too  cool.  Therefore  such 
people  are  forced  out  onto  the  sea.  In  a  less  degree  the  same  is  true 
of  New  England,  England,  Brittany,  and  Japan. 

(c)  Fisheries  and  Suhmerged  Coasts. — Along  some  coasts  the  land 
has  recently  been  submerged.  On  such  drowned  coasts  the  water  has 
filled  the  valleys  with  bays  and  left  the  ridges  as  headlands  or  islands. 
In  North  America  such  coasts  arc  found  along  the  north  Atlantic 
shore  from  \'irginia  to  Labrador,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  north  of 
San  Francisco.  In  Eurasia  they  are  found  around  the  North  Sea 
and  northward  to  Scandinavia,  and  in  Japan  and  the  regions  farther 
north.  On  subnun-ged  shores  inmunerable  little  harboi-s  tempt  people 
to  keep  boats.  The  island  headlands  arouse  curiosity  and  lead 
people  on  and  on.  WTien  storms  arise  an  island  or  a  bay  usually 
offers  shelter.  The  land  Ix^lund  the  coast  is  apt  to  be  hilly,  so  that 
people  arc  forced  to  seek  the  level  land  along  the  shore.  Thus  in 
such  surroundings  many  conditions  combine  to  cause  a  large  portion 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  111 

of  the  people  to  l^e  faniiliai-  with  tho  soa,  and  to  fj;ive  thorn  confidence 
to  undertake  short  trips  within  sight  of  hind,  and  then  lonp;  adven- 
turous voyaj^es  across  the  ocean. 

Fisheries  as  a  School  of  Seamanship. — On  such  voyages  no  on(> 
can  succeed  except  men  who  have  learned  the  art  of  bravely  enduring 
difficulties  and  who  have  great  strength  and  courage.  On  the 
Newfoundland  Banks,  for  example,  the  fishing  fleet,  partly  steamers 
and  partly  schoonei-s,  often  lies  for  weeks  in  the  cold  fogs.  On  the 
Banks  the  fishermen  are  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being  run  down  b}' 
great  ocean  "liners,"  for  the  fishing  grounds  are  near  the  route  from 
England  to  America.  Icebergs  often  bear  down  upon  a  boat  and  some- 
times overwhehn  it  before  they  are  seen.  In  the  fog  the  small  boats 
that  are  sent  out  to  take  the  fish  from  the  trawls  and  rebait  the  hooks 
occasionally  lose  their  bearings,  and  may  never  l)e  al)le  to  get  back. 
Even  when  the  boats  are  in  no  danger,  the  work  is  miserably  wet, 
cold,  and  tiresome.  Ages  of  such  fisliing  have  bred  courageous  quali- 
ties in  New  England,  the  Maritime  Provinces  of  Canada,  Norway, 
Great  Britain,  and  Japan.  This  has  greatly  helped  to  give  those 
regions  a  foremost  rank  in  commerce.  The  fishhig  fleets  are  the 
school  of  seamanship,  and  from  them  come  the  men  who  make  it 
possible  for  a  gi"eat  fleet  of  merchantmen  to  be  developed. 

Norway  furnishes  the  best  example  of  the  effect  of  geographical 
conditions  upon  fishing  and  thus  upon  conunerce.  Her  abimdant 
harbore,  bracing  northern  climate,  and  agricultural  povertj'  cause  her 
to  have  a  merchant  marine  surpassed  only  by  those  of  the  far  more 
populous  countries  such  as  Britain  and  the  United  States.  Italy 
illustrates  the  matter  in  another  way.  The  coasts  of  Italy  are 
not  particularly  well  supplied  with  harboi-s  and  the  land  is  fertile. 
Accordingly,  from  the  days  of  Caesar  to  our  own,  Italian  ships  haA-e 
been  largely  manned  by  sailors  from  the  submerged  and  relati\'ely 
sterile  Dalmatian  coast  on  the  other  side  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  This 
condition  led  to  a  serious  quarrel  at  the  end  of  the  Great  War.  Italy 
wanted  to  keep  the  Dalmatian  coast,  especially  Fimne,  because  of 
the  Uttle  Italian  seaports  along  it,  but  the  other  powers  thought 
Jugo-Slavia  ought  to  have  this  coast. 

(G)  Oceans  as  Barriers. — From  the  earUest  tunes  the  ocean  has 
been  a  barrier,  but  its  importance  in  this  respect  is  steadily  decreas- 
ing. For  thousands  of  years  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  and  the  other 
oceans  were  such  barrici-s  that  people  ncA-er  crossed  them.  That  is 
one  chief  reason  why  the  race  of  men  and  tho  species  of  animals  and 
plants  in  Australia  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  other  conthients. 
That  is  also  the  reason  why  the  gi'cat  land  mass  on  one  side  of  the 
world  is  called  the  Old  World,  while  the  two  continents  on  the  other 


112  MAX'S  ];i-r.\'ri(^x  to  bodies  of  water 

side  are  the  A>u'.  Not  till  1492  did  any  Europeans  except  the  Norse 
cro.s.s  the  Atlantic  l)arricr  to  the  strange  lands  of  America.  They 
marveletl  at  the  Red  ]\Ien,  they  were  surjirised  to  find  a  new  grain 
kno\\ii  as  maize,  a  new  vegetable  called  the  potato,  a  weed  which 
people  snioked  in  pi])ea,  and  a  host  of  other  things  which  were  un- 
known to  them  because  they  had  not  been  able  to  cross  the  water. 

How  effective  the  ocean  bamer  may  be  is  illustrated  Ijy  tlK>  life 
of  Napoleon.  After  he  had  been  conquered  ])y  the  EngUsh,  8])anish, 
and  Clermans  he  was  sent  to  the  island  of  l^lba  as  an  e.xile.  There, 
however,  the  water  that  separated  him  from  France  was  so  narrow 
that  he  escaped  from  exile  and  retimied  to  lead  his  armies  once  more. 
Then  when  he  was  again  conquered  at  Waterloo  in  1815  he  was  sent 
to  the  little  island  of  Samt  Helena,  separated  even  from  Africa  by  a 
barrier  of  1200  miles  of  water,  and  from  France  by  5000.  Hc^  could 
not  escape,  and  so  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  there.  Like;  the  light- 
house keeper  on  a  rocky  island  during  a  storm,  he  was  held  in  one 
small  place  because  he  had  no  means  of  crossing  the  ocean  barrier. 

Water  as  a  Defense  against  Enemies. — \\'ater  barricre  are  as 
effective  in  keeping  people  out  as  in  keeping  them  in.  In  prehistoric 
times  our  ancestor  protected  themselves  by  buikling  their  huts  of 
poles  and  bark  on  piles  in  the  shallow  water  near  the  shore  of  lakes. 
The  same  method  is  employed  at  present  in  New  Guinea  and  other 
East  Indian  Islands.  A  narrow  walk  leads  from  the  shore  across 
the  water  to  the  inits.  Part  of  the  walk  consists  of  a  plank  which 
can  be  lifted  from  the  seaward  side.  Thus  when  a  community  is 
gathered  in  its  huts  with  the  canoes  tied  imder  them  and  the  ])lank 
raised,  enemies  have  hanl  work  to  approach  because  of  the  barrier 
of  water. 

Water  Barriers  of  Great  Britain. — Great  Britain  is  ahnost  like  a 
home  on  ])iles  with  the  ])lank  drawn  up.  It  lies  close  to  the  coast  of 
the  most  progi'essive  part  of  Europe  and  can  communicate  freely 
with  the  rest  of  the  world  when  it  so  desires.  Yet  it  is  separated  by 
a  narrow  body  of  water  which  checks  and  delays  whoever  would 
approach  uninvited.  Although  the  twenty  miles  of  water  between 
Dover  and  Calais  once  made  I'higland  isolated  and  backwanl,  they 
have  in  the  long  run  been  of  ahnost  hicalculable  value  to  that  countiy. 
In  the  later  decades  of  the  last  centiny  and  the  earlier  ones  of  the 
present  when  the  other  gi*eat  Powere  of  Europe  were  spending  imtold 
millions  in  prepanng  vast  armies,  England  was  content  with  only  a 
small  army,  and  saved  her  money  either  to  develop  the  industries  of 
peace  or  to  build  wai-ships.  She  knew  that  Ixicause  of  the  water  no 
large  army  of  invadei-s  could  (juickly  be  landed  on  her  coasts,  and  that 
she  was  safe  from  attack.     So  nnich  did  she  \alue  her  island  i)osition 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  113 

that  after  a  tunnel  under  the  English  Channel  was  actually  begun,  the 
project  was  abandoned.  England  did  not  wish  to  })uild  an  easy- 
entrance  to  her  front  door  and  thus  perliaps  give  an  enemy  the  oppor- 
tunity to  bring  in  an  army.  For  the  sake  of  safety  she  proposed  to 
compel  those  who  came  to  her  to  come  in  l^oats. 

"When  the  Great  War  came,  Germany  could  do  little  harm  to  the 
island  empire,  try  as  she  might.  Even  dirigibles  and  airplanes 
WTOUght  only  intermittent  and  local  destruction  on  the  English 
coast  and  in  London.  The  island  as  a  whole  was  unaffected.  In  the 
end,  because  England's  water  boundaries  had  led  her  to  develop  a 
great  navy,  she  maintained  control  of  the  sea,  and  cut  off  a  large 
share  of  Germany's  foreign  commerce,  while  she  herself  was  being 
greatly  helped  by  supplies  and  annnunition  from  America  and  else- 
where. Wheal  America  was  ready  to  enter  the  war,  British  ships 
carried  more  than  a  million  of  our  men  overeeas. 

Water  Barriers  of  Japan. — Aside  from  Great  Britain  many  other 
large  islands  have  the  advantage  of  protection  by  water.  Only  Japan, 
however,  has  so  stmmlating  a  cUniate  and  is  located  so  close  to  a  con- 
tinent that  it  reaps  an  advantage  similar  to  that  of  Britain.  Japan, 
to  be  sin-e,  has  the  disadvantage  of  l)eing  far  from  the  center  of  the 
land  hemisphere  and  of  having  no  highly  advanced  neighbors  close 
at  hand.  On  the  other  hand,  her  island  position  has  allowed  her  to 
develop  her  civilization  without  being  swamped  by  the  barl^arous 
invaders  who  have  again  and  again  entered  Chma  from  the  bleak 
deserts  of  Central  Asia.  In  our  day  Japan  is  fast  building  up  a  navy 
and  acquiring  a  large  merchant  marine,  so  that  she  follows  closely  in 
the  footsteps  of  Great  Britain. 

(7)  Oceans  as  Carriers  of  Comvierce. — Although  the  oceans  serve 
as  })arri(n-s  they  are  also  a  great  help  in  transportation,  provided 
people  can  build  the  right  Idnd  of  boats.  Transportation  by  water  is 
the  cheapest  known  method,  and  hence  the  oceans  carry  a  vast  volume 
of  c()min(M-ce.     Let  us  compare  this  method  with  others. 

The  Low  Cost  of  Ocean  Transportation. — The  cost  of  transporting 
goods  l)y  hand  sledges  across  snowy  mountains  is  sometimes  as  high 
as  S2()  per  ton  for  a  single  mile.  That  is  what  it  cost,  for  example, 
when  the  Klondike  mines  on  the  Yukon  were  fii-st  opened,  and 
supplies  had  to  be  carried  from  southern  Alaska.  To  carry  a  ton  a 
mile  in  the  air  costs  several  dollai"s,  although  the  rate  is  fast  decreas- 
ing. Th(^  cost  by  rail  is  far  lower,  being  less  than  two  cents  in  the 
more  thickly  settled  ])arts  of  the  United  States.  On  the  oceans, 
however,  this  low  rate  falLs  still  lower,  that  is,  to  less  than  a  fifth  of  a 
cent  per  mile  for  a  ton.  This  is  only  about  a  tenth  as  much  as  by 
rail,  perhaps  a  hundredth  or  a  thousandth  as  much  as  by  the  air- 


114  MAX'S   RELATION   TO   BODIES   OF  WATER 

piano  or  (liriu;il)lc  ami  a  i.cn-lhousandtli  as  much  us  ])y  sledge  over 
Arctic  iiKniiitaiiis. 

Why  Ocean  Transportation  Costs  so  Little. — (a)  The  Fnr  High  wuy. 
— Transportation  by  sea  costs  far  less  than  on  land  for  several  reasons. 
In  the  fii-st  place  the  ocean  is  a  ready-made  highway  free  to  all, 
hence  ocean  transjiortation  is  not  binxlened  with  three  classes  of  heavy 
expenses  that  are  borne  by  railroads:  (a)  Construction.  Trains 
require  trac^ks  which  may  cost  only  $20,000  per  mile  in  a  smooth 
plain  where  wood  is  alnmdant.  (.enerally,  however,  the  cost  is 
nearer  one  or  even  two  hundred  thousand  dollars  ])('r  mile  including 
roadbed,  stations,  sidings,  and  so  forth.  .-Vmong  mountains  the  cost 
is  much  gr(>ater.  The  interest  paid  annually  on  this  exi)entUture  is 
an  imi)ortant  item  in  the  cost  of  land  transportation.  (6)  Mainte- 
nance. Large  smns  nnist  be  paid  by  the  railroads  to  maintain  the 
road  Ix^d  in  good  condition.  Since  the  tracks  wear  out,  they  nmst 
constantly  be  watched  by  track  walkei-s  and  repaired  by  section  men. 
(c)  Taxes  arc  another  item.  Even  in  ISIaine,  where  there  are  only 
about  2300  miles  of  track,  the  railroads  pay  about  $000,000  per  year 
in  taxes. 

(6)  The  Small  Amount  of  Power  Needed  on  Waterways. — Another 
imjiortant  advantage  of  transportation  by  sea  is  that  less  power, 
and  hence  less  coal  and  oil,  are  needed  by  steamere  than  by  trains  to 
do  tlu;  same  work.  A  pei-son  of  ordinary  strength  can  push  a  40-ton 
boat  away  from  a  wharf,  provided  wind  and  tide  do  not  interfere, 
but  he  could  not  start  a  freight  car  weighing  forty  tons  without  the 
aid  of  some  mechanical  appliance  like  a  lever.  Again,  the  ocean  is 
absolutely  level,  while  no  railroad  can  be  free  from  gi'ades  for  more 
than  a  limited  distance.  The  gi-ades  are  expensive  Ix^causc  the  loads 
must  be  lifted.  Of  course  they  are  not  lifted  straight  u]i,  but  the 
total  amount  of  work  is  the  same  as  if  they  were. 

(c)  The  Small  Number  of  Men  Needed  on  Ships. — Another  advan- 
tage of  water  transportation  is  that  a  given  load  on  a  steamship 
rcquires  fewer  men  than  on  a  train.  A  good-sized  freight  steamer 
registered  at  12,000  tons  can  actually  carry  more  than  25,000.  Such 
a  ship  travels  steadily  at  the  rate  of  about  15  miles  an  hour,  which  is 
(luite  as  fast  as  a  freight  train  when  allowance  is  matle  for  the  time 
spent  in  waiting  on  sidings  or  in  the  yards  where  new  trains  are  made 
up.  To  cany  25,000  tons  of  freight  would  nuiuire  about  20  trains 
of  ;>()  cars  each.  Each  train  reciuires  a  crew  of  at  least  five  or  six 
men,  ajid  three  crews  are  iiecijcd  duriiiu-  tlic  t \\('n1>--four  hours. 
In  addition  some  attention  is  ic(|uii('<l  I'loni  many  station  agents, 
train  des])at,chers,  flagmen,  switch  tenders,  oilers,  and  others,  so 
that  the  total  amount,  of  work  is  eciual  to  t^hat.  of  about  .'i()  men 


THE   INFLUENCE  OF   THE   OCEANS  115 

for  each  train,  or  720  for  the  20  trains.     A   12,000-ton  steamer, 
if  used  only  for  freight,  needs  a  crew  of  only  about  100  men. 

(d)  The  Low  Cost  of  Building  Skips  as  Compared  with  Locomotives. 
— ^The  cost  of  building  a  steamer  is  less  than  that  of  the  corresponding 
trains.  An  average  locomotive  costs  S70,()00  and  a  freight  car  about 
$3500,  so  that  a  30-car  train  would  cost  alxnit  $175,000,  and  20  trains 
about  $3,500,000.  A  12,000-ton  freight  steamer  could  be  buiU,  for 
$2,000,000. 

(e)  The  Safety  of  Water  Transportation. — From  the  ])()int  of  view 
of  safety  water  transportation  has  an  advantage.  The  proportion 
of  passengei*s  lost  at  sea  is  less  than  on  land,  while  in  the  number  of 
accitlental  injuries  to  emplo^'(>es  the  conditions  at  sea  are  still  more 
favorable.  Every  accident  costs  something  for  damages,'  so  that 
even  in  this  resi^yect  irans]iortation  by  water  costs  less  than  by  land. 

The  Role  of  Harbors  in  Water  Transportation. — Transjiortation 
on  the  ocean  would  be  as  difficult  without  harbors  as  would  railway 
traffic  without  stations  and  freight  yards.  A  good  modern  harbor 
must  furnish  (a)  protection  from  winds  and  waves,  (6)  good  de])th  of 
water  in  the  channels  and  close  to  the  shore,  (c)  abundant  anchorage 
room,  and  (c/)  plenty  of  space  for  docks.  A  harbor  may  possess  all 
these  qualities,  however,  and  yet  not  lead  to  the  growth  of  a  great 
city,  as  may  be  seen  at  Mount  Desert  in  Maine  and  in  the  many 
deep  bays  that  border  the  Gulf  of  California.  It  needs  also  (e)  abun- 
dant level  land  for  city  buildhigs,  (/)  easy  lines  of  communication  with 
the  interior,  and  (g)  a  rich  "hinterland^'  or  "back  country"  in  which 
to  sell  imported  products  in  exchange  for  raw  materials,  food,  and 
manufactiu'od  goods. 

(a)  Why  Harbors  Need  Protection. — No  matter  whether  people 
use  primitive  canoes  or  huge  modern  steamships,  navigation  is 
nnicli  hamp(M"ed  unless  the  harbors  are  well  i)r()tected.  Islands  and 
headlands  break  the  force  of  the  winds  and  waves  and  thus,  hy  pre- 
venting the  boats  from  being  tossed  about  and  perhaps  dashed  against 
the  shore  or  against  one  another,  make  it  easy  to  load  them  at  all 
tinu^s.  So  important  is  protection  that  millions  of  dollars  are  spent 
amuially  for  breakwaters. 

(6)  The  Constant  Demand  for  Deeper  Harbors. — The  depth  of  the 
water  in  a  harbor  becomes  increasingly  important  \yith  the  gro^^'th 
of  civilization.  For  small  sailing  shijis,  harboi-s  10  to  20  feet  deep  are 
sufficient.  So  long  as  such  ships  were  the  largest  that  sailed  the 
ocean  it  was  possible  for  a  port  like  Salem,  Massachusetts,  to  do  more 
business  than  Boston,  and  almost  as  much  as  New  York,  while  New- 
Innyport,  (^doucester,  Fall  River,  New  Bc'dford,  New  London,  and 
many  other  places  were  almost  equally  iniiiortant.     ^\'hen  the  steam 


IIG  MANS  ri;latiux  to  iu)1jii:s  or  water 

cngiiio  was  invent od,  and  still  more  whcMi  steel  took  the  plac(>  of 
wootl  in  builtling  vessels,  the  size  of  ships  began  to  incretisc  rapidly. 

The  size  of  ships  also  increases  constantly  because  large  ships  are 
more  economical  than  small  ones.  A  freight  steamer  costing  S')00,000 
and  recjuiring  a  crew  of  40  men  will  carry  twice  as  much  as  two 
smaller  steamers  costing  Sr)00,000  together  and  recjuiring  50  men. 
Some  modern  shii)s  have  a  "  tonnag(>  "  of  ")0,000  tons  and  could  cany 
over  1(M),000  tons  of  freight  if  the}-  did  not  give  up  so  much  .space  to 
passengers.  Such  a  ship  is  nearly  1000  feet  long,  100  feet  wide,  and 
over  GO  feet  from  the  keel  to  tlie  ii])})er  deck.  It  needs  from  35  to  40 
feet  of  water.  For  such  stcanu^rs  a  shallow  harbor,  no  matter  how 
well  ])rotected,  is  useless.  Practically  no  hnportant  ports,  however, 
have  natural  harbors  with  any  such  de])th.  Hence  each  year  millions 
of  dollars  are  spent  by  the  national  government  in  order  to  deejien 
harboi's,  while  cities  and  States  also  make  a])])r()priations  for  it.  In 
a  decade  the  national  government  has  s])ent  as  much  as  $4,000,000 
on  the  im]irovement  of  the  approaches  to  Philadeli)hia  alone. 

The  Depth  of  American  Harbors. — At  present  Xew  York  and 
San  Francisco  arc  the  only  Amciican  .seaports  having  channels  deej) 
enough  for  great  steamers  drawing  40  feet.  The  people  of  Boston 
talk  about  a  45-foot  channel  to  acconunodate  not  only  all  present 
ships  but  the  still  lai'ger  ones  that  are  expected  in  the  near  future. 
At  present  the  Boston  channel  is  35  feet  deep,  v,hich  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Norfolk,  New  Orleans, 
and  Seattle.  Such  important  ports  as  Oakland  and  Los  Angeles, 
where  the  original  dei)th  of  part  of  the  harbor  was  only  2  feet,  and 
Galveston,  have  30-foot  channels;  Charleston,  28;  Savannah,  27,  and 
Tampa  and  IMo])ile,  20.  No  other  harl)ors  in  the  United  States 
have  such  deep  channels.  \\'ith  the  gi'owing  tendenc}'  to  build  large 
ships  the  more  favored  ports  are  bound  to  gi'ow  more  and  znore  at  the 
expen.sc  of  those  with  shallower  channels. 

(c)  The  Need  for  Roomy  II  arbors. — D(>ep  water  is  needed  not  only 
in  the  channel  but  in  ]ilaces  nf)t  far  from  shore  where  vessels  can  find 
room  to  anchor  and  turn  around.  A  1000-foot  vessel  needs  nearly 
half  a  mile  of  free  space  in  which  to  turn  around,  even  though  she 
has  the  lid])  of  tugs.  W'lien  the  great  I tiijKrolor  first  came  into  New 
York  Harl)or  the  ca])tains  of  some  of  the  other  boats  in  the  North 
River  did  not  realize  how  much  room  she  required  in  order  to  tui'n 
and  get  into  licr  bciih  in  ihc  dock.  Consequently  she  bumped  one 
or  two  other  siups,  ran  into  a  wharf,  and  did  such  damage  that  her 
landing  cost  .S45,000.  Because  of  the  large  area  required  to  maneu- 
ver niodcin  steamships  .i  river  such  as  forms  the  harbor  at  Savan- 
nah is  rarely  .so  valuable  as  a  bay  along  a  submerg(>d  coast  like  that 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  117 

of  the  Atlantic  from  Norfolk  northward,  or  the  Pacific  from  Puget 
Sound  northward. 

(d)  Dockage  Space  as  a  Necessity  of  a  Good  Harbor. — Harbors  on 
submerged  coasts  not  only  furnish  ample  room,  hut  also  adequate 
dockage  space.  Liverpool,  for  example,  on  the  estuary  of  the  JMersej^, 
where  it  has  been  easy  to  build  many  docks,  has  a  gi'cat  advantage 
over  Shanghai,  on  the  Yangtse  delta,  where  ships  have  to  discharge 
their  cargo  into  lighters  while  at  anchor  in  the  middle  of  the  river, 
five  miles  from  the  city.  In  bays  formed  by  submergence  the  long 
shoreline  and  deep  water  close  to  the  shore  enable  numerous  docks 
to  be  built,  so  that  steamers  can  be  loaded  directly  from  the  land. 
It  is  an  expensive  thing  when  a  ship  costing  a  million  dollars  has  to 
spend  two-thirds  of  its  time  lying  idle  while  waiting  to  come  up  to  the 
docks,  as  has  often  happened  at  the  oil  port  of  Batum;  the  charges 
for  interest  and  depreciation,  that  is,  for  wear,  rust,  breakage,  decay, 
and  old  age,  count  up  almost  as  rapidly  as  if  she  were  carrying  mer- 
chandise, while  the  wages  of  the  crew  also  continue.  Hence  ship- 
owners prefer  to  send  their  ships  to  places  where  abundant  docks 
make  it  possible  to  receive  cargoes  directly  from  warehouses  or  from 
railroad  trains  which  come  alongside,  so  that  their  loads  may  be 
hoisted  from  the  cars  to  the  ship's  hold.  Boston  is  an  example  of  a 
great  port  which  has  suffered  from  lack  of  docks  in  the  past,  although 
now  this  is  being  remedied.  New  York,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
perhaps  the  best  dockage  facilities  in  the  world.  Counting  all  the 
little  bays  and  estuaries  New  York  Harbor  has  a  water  frontage  of 
771  miles,  290  of  which  have  been  improved. 

(c)  How  Land  for  City  Building  Affects  the  Value  of  a  Harbor. — If 
a  harbor  does  much  business  it  must  have  a  large  city  beside  it.  Such 
a  city  needs  level  land,  especially  for  its  business  sections.  Some 
cities  such  as  San  Francisco  have  gi*own  great  in  spite  of  the  hills, 
but  those  like  Philadelphia,  which  have  plenty  of  level  land,  are 
fortimate.  So  necessary  is  this  that  in  many  places  shallow  bays  have 
been  filled  to  make  artificial  land.  The  best  residential  section  of 
Boston  is  the  Back  Bay,  where  once  the  tide  ebbed  and  flowed.  It 
paid  Seattle  to  spend  millions  of  doUare  to  cut  down  a  steep  hill  of 
gravel  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  By  means  of  gi'eat  streams  of  water 
squirted  against  the  hill  it  was  washed  into  the  shallow^  part  of  the 
bay.  Thus  level  land  was  obtained  both  by  cutting  down  the  hill 
and  by  filling  the  bay. 

(/)  How  Lines  of  Inland  Communication  Make  or  Mar  a  Har- 
bor.— A  modern  seaport  can  become  of  much  importance  only 
when  it  is  served  by  numerous  lines  of  land  trans]iortation.  Along 
the  Pacific  coast,  for  example,  Ihc  Iwin  potts  of  S;ui  I'l-ancisco  and 


118  MAXS    Hi;i.ATI()X   TO   BODIES   OF  WATER 


c     2 


H    5 


H    -2 


Ph  -z 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF  THE   OCEANS 


119 


120  MAN'S    HKLATIOX    TO    BODIES   OF    WATER 

Oakland  are  gi'catly  helped  Ix^caiise  the  combined  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  valleys  enable  railways  easily  to  reach  the  interior  of 
California.  Northward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Cohmibia  River,  on  the 
other  hand,  no  great  city  could  gjow  up  even  if  there  were  a  good 
harbor,  because  high  mountains  everywhere  hinder  conmiunication 
with  the  interior. 

(g)  How  the  Hinterland  Deteimines  the  Trade  of  a  Harbor. — A 
harbor  has  Uttle  value  unless  it  has  plenty  of  business.  Business 
depends  not  only  on  the  seaport  itself,  but  on  other  places  which  are 
trilnitary  to  it.  The  region  where  such  places  are  located  is  called 
the  "hinterland."  The  hniwrtancc  of  a  hinterland  depends  not  only 
on  its  size,  but  much  more  upon  the  number  of  inhabitants  and  their 
power  to  produce  goods  and  to  buy.  Para  is  a  seaport  of  minor 
rank,  because  its  hinterland,  the  enormous  basin  of  the  Amazon, 
is  sparsely  populated  and  undevelo] )('({.  Providence,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  far  more  important  because  its  very  limited  hinterland,  even 
though  it  eml^races  little  more  than  Rhode  Island,  is  densely  popu- 
lated and  highly  civilized. 

A  lunited  hinterland  hindei-s  the  gi-owth  of  a  port  even  though 
the  harbor  is  excellent,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  experience  of  a  ship 
called  the  Minnesota.  When  she  was  built  she  was  the  largest  vessel 
flying  the  American  flag.  She  was  put  in  commission  between  our 
Pacific  coast  and  Oriental  ports.  Unfortunately,  however,  she  could 
not  at  that  time  get  a  full  load  without  a  long  wait.  This  was  so 
expensive  that  finally  she  was  transferred  to  the  Atlantic  side.  The 
trouble  was  that  on  the  Pacific  side  the  hinterland  contained  too  few 
people  to  supply  full  cargoes  at  frequent  intervals.  The  hinterland 
on  the  Atlantic  side,  however,  was  so  much  more  populous  that  it 
easily  employed  this  ship  and  many  others. 

How  a  Great  Harbor  was  Made  in  an  Emergency:  Brest. — The 
importance  of  most  harbore  is  the  result  of  gradual  gi'owth,  but  once 
in  a  while  a  harbor  suddenly  becomes  gi'eat  because  of  some  emer- 
gency. For  instance,  Gary,  at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan, 
suddenly  l)ccamc  a  considerable  port  when  the  United  States  Steel 
('oi-]>oration  established  its  plant  there.  The  most  striking  example 
of  this  kind,  however,  is  Brest  in  western  l^'rance,  at  the  end  of  the 
peninsula  of  Brittany.  Before  1lie  (Ircat  War  Brest  was  a  compar- 
atively insignificant  port  to  which  there  came  only  one  ship  for  every 
two  hundred  that  came  to  Ue  Havre,  near  Paris,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Seine.  Of  the  seven  refjuirements  for  a  good  harbor  Brest  had  only 
three.  It  was  protfvtefl  from  winds  and  waves  because  it  lies  at  the 
inner  end  of  a  dec])  gulf  I  1  miles  long;  for  this  reason  it  had 
abundant  anr|i()rag<-  s])acc;    and  there  was  ])lenty  of  space  for  docks 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  121 

because  the  coast  of  Brittany  is  submerged,  so  that  it  is  long  and 
winding. 

In  all  other  respects  the  harbor  was  far  from  fii"st  class:  the 
water  was  not  deep  enough  for  large  vessels  either  in  the  channel  or 
close  to  the  shore  where  docks  would  have  to  be  made ;  there  was  little 
level  land  for  the  gi'owth  of  a  city,  for  the  hills  rise  steeply  so  that  in 
many  cases  the  ascent  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  town  has  to  be 
made  by  means  of  flights  of  steps,  and  the  second  or  third  story  of  one 
house  is  often  on  a  level  with  the  gi-ound  floor  of  the  next.  More- 
over, the  lines  of  communication  with  the  interior  were  only  moderate, 
for  the  one  direct  railway  to  the  interior  of  Finance  winds  gfeatly 
among  the  hills  of  Brittany  and  is  not  adapted  to  heav}'  traffic. 
Finally  Brest  had  onlj^  a  small  hinterland,  for  the  ports  of  Nantes  on 
one  side  and  Cherbourg  and  especially  Le  Havre  on  the  other  are 
so  much  nearer  the  main  centers  of  France  that  Brest  had  only 
a  part  of  Brittany  as  its  hinterland. 

When  the  United  States  entered  the  Great  War  in  April,  1917, 
these  other  ports  were  so  busy  with  the  shipping  of  France  and 
England,  and  it  would  have  been  so  difficult  to  enlarge  them,  that 
this  country  decided  to  convert  Brest  into  a  flrst-class  harbor.  More- 
over Brest  is  the  French  port  nearest  America,  and  hence  ships  ran 
less  danger  from  submarines  in  reaching  it  than  in  reaching  more 
distant  ports.  Accordingly  machinerj^  of  all  kinds  was  at  once  sent 
over  and  thousands  of  soldiers  fell  to  work  with  iml)0unded  energy 
and  enthusiasm.  Great  dredges  scooped  out  a  channel  deep  enough 
for  the  largest  ocean  liners.  Huge  docks  of  concrete  were  constructed 
with  deep  water  alongside  of  them,  and  with  railway  tracks,  cranes, 
and  warehouses  upon  them.  Space  for  camps,  machine  shops,  and 
munitions  works  was  obtained  by  going  ])ack  onto  the  level  plateau 
beyond  the  town  and  by  running  automobile  lines  to  places  that  had 
hitherto  been  thought  too  far  from  the  shore. 

In  addition  to  all  this  work  directly  on  the  harbor  and  port,  the 
railway  lines  to  the  interior  w(m-(^  much  improved.  All  this  was 
worth  while,  because  Brest  had  suddenly  acciuircd  a  gn^it  luiitciiaiid 
— the  entir(>  area  where  the  .American  Army  with  its  ceaseless  tlemands 
for  food,  guns,  i^rojcctih^s,  camp  supplies,  and  men,  was  helj^ng  to 
win  the  war  for  the  freedom  of  nations.  By  the  s])ring  of  li)18  Brest 
had  all  seven  of  the  retiuisites  of  a  great  seajiort  and  soon  InH-ame  one 
of  the  world's  Inisiest  harboi"s.  Nowhere  else  in  all  the  world  have 
nearly  300,000  men  ever  landed  at  any  one  port  in  a  month.  So 
great  was  the  work  of  caring  for  the  freight  and  ])assengers  that  ]iassetl 
through  the  port  that  the  ])opulation  increased  many  thousand. 
Then  when  the  war  was  won,  the  Americans  went  away  and  the 


122 


M.WS    RELATION    TO    I'.onil'S   OF   WATER 


hinterland  was rodiiocd  once  move  to  :i  ]ijirt  of  Brittany.  In  the  other 
six  r('s]K>cts  l^rcst.  still  ranked  lii<j:li  ainonfj;  French  jjoils,  hut  the  ))oi)u- 
lation  soon  hepm  to  diminish.  I'>r(^-l  is  too  far  from  Paris  and  the 
otlier  ^reat  centers  of  ])i)])ulati()ii  and  hence  has  too  small  a  hinter- 
land to  retain  its  tiosition  as  a  I'cally  jireat  ])ort. 

Why  Seaports  Grow. — Just  as  l^rest  had  to  ex])aiid  suddenly  to 
aeconuiiodate  the  workei-s  who  li()<ke(l  in  to  make  it  a  tn'cat  ])ort,  so 
every  seaport  jii'ows  jiiore  gradually  to  accommodate  similar  workers. 
These  ])rovide  a  market  for  other  ])eo])le  who  sell  food,  clothinji,  and 
other  necessities;  still  others  serve  as  clerks,  stenographer,  teachers, 
masons,  shoemakers,  mechanics,  and  the  other  kinds  of  workers  who 
are  n(H>ded  in  every  large  conununity.  Thus  a  city  arises  beside  the 
harhor. 

Such  a  city,  whether  it  he  a  port  on  the  ocean  like  Baltimore,  on  a 
lake  like  Buffalo,  or  on  a  river  like  New  Orleans,  ]ioss(>sses  several 
advantages.  For  the  manufacturer  many  kinds  of  raw  materials 
are  cheaper  and  are  found  in  gn^ater  variety  there  than  elsewhere, 
while  it  is  relatively  easy  to  build  u\)  foreign  trade  because  the  repre- 
sentatives of  foreign  business  houses  come  to  seaports  much  oftener 
than  to  cities  in  the  interior.  The  merchant  also  prefers  a  seaport 
because  it  ])uts  him  in  such  close  contact  with  the  markets  of  the 
world.  The  people  who  are  chiefly  interested  in  art,  music,  science, 
or  other  intellectual  pursuits  prefer  the  seaports  because  so  many 
travelers  come  to  them,  and  thus  those  who  live  in  the  seaports  are 
stimulated  by  personal  contact  with  people  who  Ining  new  ideas 
from  other  lands.  When  once  a  seaport,  or  a  ])ort  on  a  lake  or  river, 
is  well  started  it  gi'ows  in  spite  of  itself. 

Concentration  of  Population  in  Seaports  of  the  United  States. — 
The  remarkal^li!  way  in  which  trans])()rtation  by  water  influence's 
the  size  of  cities  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


RELATION  OF  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  TO  TRANS- 
PORTATION BY  WATER 


Population 
1918. 

Number  of 
Cities. 

PerrcntaKO 
Reached  i>y 

Ocean  and 
Lake  Trans- 

Percentage 
Reached  by 

River  or 
Canal  Trans- 

Percentage 
not  Reached 

by  Water 
Transi)orta- 

I)ortation. 

portation. 

tion. 

Ocean  Lake 

A.  Over  3.".n,OnO 

20 

7")  (50+2.5) 

25 

0 

B.   l(K),(l(l()t(..T)n.000 

r^r^ 

31  (25+  (5) 

29 

40 

C.    r)(),()0()  to  loo.ono 

(17 

30  (27+  3) 

22 

48 

D.     2.J,0U0to    50,0U0 

128 

25  (17+  8) 

20 

55 

This  table  means  th.at  all  of  the  twenty  largest  cities  in  the  United 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  123 

States  have  water  transportation.  Ten  are  reached  l)y  ocean-going 
vessels;  five  an;  on  the  Great  Lakers,  and  the  other  five  on  the  Missis- 
sippi or  Ohio.  One  of  these  twenty,  however,  that  is,  Los  Angeles, 
made  its  growth  without  the  help  of  navigation,  but  felt  the  need  of 
being  a  seaport  so  strongly  that  it  reached  out  20  miles  and  built  a 
harbor  at  San  Pedro,  so  that  it  is  now  a  s(^aport.  ^^'ashington,  also, 
does  not  owe  its  growth  to  water  transportation,  but  is  included 
among  the  seaports  because  it  is  located  on  the  Potomac  estuary. 
In  the  United  States  thus  far  no  city  has  risen  to  the  fii-st  rank  unless 
it  is  on  the  ocean  or  Great  Lakes,  or  else  on  the  Mississippi  or  one  of 
its  main  trilnitaries.  Yet  the  amount  of  land  within  five  miles  of 
these  l)odies  of  water  is  less  than  3  per  cent  of  the  entire  area  of  the 
country. 

In  the  second  hne  of  the  table  we  see  that  among  cities  of  the 
second  class  with  a  population  of  from  100,000  to  350,000,  about  a 
third  are  on  the  seacoast  or  on  lakes,  another  third  on  navigable 
rivei-s  or  canals,  and  the  remaining  40  per  cent  have  no  water  com- 
munication. With  cities  of  the  third  class  having  fi-om  50,000  to 
100,000  people  about  a  third  are  on  the  coast,  while  a  quarter  are  on 
rivei-s  or  canals,  and  nearly  half  are  not  favored  with  water  transpor- 
tation. Finally  onl}'  a  quarter  of  the  little  cities  of  the  fourth  class 
with  from  25,000  to  50,000  people  are  on  the  coast,  while  more  than 
half  have  no  relation  to  the  water.  If  our  table  included  the  hundreds 
of  still  smaller  towns  with  from  10,000  to  25,000  people,  the  pro])or- 
tion  not  reached  by  water  transportation  would  be  still  greater,  while 
with  places  having  less  than  10,000  more  than  95  per  cent  are  neither 
on  the  coast  nor  on  navigable  waterways. 

Concentration  of  Population  in  Seaports  throughout  the  World. — 
Not  only  in  the  United  States,  Init  in  all  parts  of  the  world  the  de- 
mands of  conmierce  cause  the  greatest  citic^s  usually  to  be  located 
beside  the  sea.  Of  the  40  largest  citi(>s  in  the  world,  23  can  be  reached 
by  ocean  steanun-s,  and  2  by  those  plying  on  the  Great  Lakes  of 
North  America.  Even  among  the  15  interior  cities  7  are  located 
on  large  navigable  rivers  such  as  the  Mississippi,  Danul)e,  Vistula, 
and  Nile,  3  are  on  small  na\'igabl(^  riv(M"s  of  no  great  importance,  such 
as  the  Seine,  Spree,  and  Oka,  and  only  5  are  wholly  without  com- 
munication by  water. 

These  facts,  like  those  shown  in  the  table  for  the  Ignited  States, 
indicate  that  there  is  a  gi'cat  concentration  of  largc^  citi(>s  on  the 
coasts  of  oceans  and  great  lakes.  A.^'  time  goes  on  this  conccnti-alion 
increases,  for  it  is  the  logical  r(>sult  of  the  growth  of  manufacturing 
and  commerce  and  tluM'slablisiiKMit  of  closer  relations  among  the 
nations.     But   to  acconnnodate   nioi-e  coninierce   the  sc;i])orts  must 


124  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   BODIES   OF   WATER 

havo  more  docks,  Mirtrcr  slii]is.  (l("('])cr  cliamicls,  and  inoro  ofTicos  aiul 
warehouses,  \vliih>  more  railway  trains  must  ])ull  into  the  great  tvv- 
minals.  Hence  the  hig  s(>a]X)rts  and  l;ikei)orts  grow  more  and  more 
huge,  so  that  som(>  hke  New  York  can  scarcely  find  room  for  all  their 
buildings. 

Oceans  and  Civilization. — Year  l)y  year  the  commerce  carried 
upon  the  ocean  gi'ows  more  important.  The  lines  of  steamship 
traffic  are  like  arteries  and  veins  which  can-y  life  wherever  they  go. 
ISIerchant  vessels  break  down  the  bairicn-  of  the  sea.  and  o])eii  the 
seaboard  parts  of  the  world  to  the  inliuence  of  all  the  otlici-  ]iarts 
that  have  harbors.  The  more  the  life  of  the  nation  deiMMids  upon 
them,  the  more  important  it  becomes  that  they  should  not  l)e  de- 
stroyed by  calamities  like  the  (Ireat  War. 

Before  man  became  civilized  the  sea  and  the  other  great  bodies  of 
water  played  almost  no  part  in  his  life,  except  to  regulate  the  rain- 
fall and  temperature  of  the  lands,  to  furnish  iish  for  food,  and  to  pre- 
vent his  migi-ating  in  certain  directions.  To-day  the  navigable 
waters  arv  of  su]ireme  importance,  for  they  enable  the  distant  ])arts  of 
the  earth  to  contribute  to  one  another's  su])])ort ;  they  an^  one  of  the 
conditions  of  the  growth  of  our  largest  cities;  they  enable  civiliza- 
tion and  conunerce  to  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  globe;  and  their  con- 
trol enables  a  nation  to  develop  without  fear  of  being  overcome  by  its 
enemies. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

L  !Make  a  table  of  the  forty  largest  cities  of  the  world  in  order  of  size,  beginning 
with  the  largest.  Opposite  each  put  first  the  population  in  thousands  as  found  in 
the  latest  year  book,  like  the  Statesman's  Year  book  or  the  World  Almanac,  and 
then  the  class  of  transportation  by  which  the  city  is  reached;  i.e.,  (a)  ocean  trans- 
portation, (h)  lake  tran.sjKJrtation,  (c)  river  or  canal  transportation,  or  (d)  no  water 
transportation.  Now  see  if  the  proportions  are  the  same  as  when  this  book  was 
printed  by  comparing  your  figures  with  those  on  a  preceding  page. 

2  Do  the  .same  as  suggested  in  lOxercise  1  with  the  cities  of  the  United  States 
with  a  population  of  more  than  SoO, ()()(). 

3.  Describe  the  harbor  nearest  j-our  lionie,  or  some  othiM-  in  which  you  are 
interested,  in  resjiect  to  the  seven  conditions  discu.ssed  in  this  chapter.  Point 
out  in  which  conditions  it  excels  and  in  which  it  is  deficient.     Organize  the  whole 

into  a  problem  with  this  form.     Why  has become  such 

an    important   seaport?     Or   why   has   not become   more 

important  as  a  seaport?  Let  each  of  the  seven  conditions  take  tlic  fdiiii  of  minor 
problems,  such  as,  IIow  has  the  i)rotec1i()n  wliidi  tlic  harlxir  furnishes  vessels 
helped  (or  hindered)  the  growth  of 

4.  How  does  the  interior  location  of  Czecho-Slovakia  handicap  that  country? 

5.  In  tlie  following  table  of  water-l)orne  commerce  of  some  of  the  worki's  chief 
ports,  select  any  pair  of  ])orts  on  tlic  same  horizutilal  line  ami  put   tlH>m  into  a 

problem  as  follows:  "Wlij*  has   l)econie  so  much  more  important  as  a 

seaport  than ?     Compare  them  as  to  each  of  the  seven 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS 


125 


qualities  mentioned  in  this  chapter  so  far  as  you  can  find  the  facts  in  encyclopedias, 
geographies,  and  other  books. 

VALUE    OF    THE   WATER-BORNE    COMMERCE    OF    SOME  OF  THE 
WORLD'S  CHIEF  PORTS 


New  York 

(1917)  $4,390,000,000 

Boston 

(1917) 

420,000,000 

London 

(1916) 

2,666,000,000 

Cardiff 

(1916) 

110,000,000 

Liverjiool 

(191G) 

2,317,000,000 

Manchester 

(1917) 

431,0()(),()()0 

Hamburg 

(1913) 

1,902,000,000 

Belfast 

(1916) 

50,0()(),()00 

Antwerp 

(1912) 

1,211,000,000 

Bordeaux 

(1913) 

168,000,000 

Marseilles 

(1913) 

755,000,000 

Bilbao 

(1913) 

32,000,000 

Havre 

(1913) 

617,000,000 

Southampton 

(1916) 

82,000,000 

Montreal 

(1917) 

606,000,000 

Quebec 

(1917) 

32,000,000 

Philadelphia 

(1917) 

574,000,000 

Vera  Cruz 

(1913) 

83,000,000 

Bremen 

(1913) 

582,000,000 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

(1916) 

134,000,000 

Genoa 

(1915) 

509,000,000 

Naples 

(1915) 

123,000,000 

Buenos  Aires 

(1916) 

440,000,000 

Valparaiso 

(1916) 

38,000,000 

Calcutta 

(1916) 

454,000,000 

Bombay 

(1916) 

187,000,000 

Yokohama 

(1916) 

353,000,000 

Antofogasta 

(1915) 

31,000,000 

Kobe 

(1916) 

352,000,000 

Canton 

(1916) 

67,000,000 

Sydney 

(1916) 

351,000,000 

Alexandria 

(1916) 

284,000,006 

Hull 

(1916) 

422,000,000 

Tampico 

(1913) 

63,000,000 

Glasgow 

(1916) 

369,000,000 

Havana 

(1916) 

272,000,000 

Trieste 

(1913) 

337,000,000 

Fiume 

(1912) 

98,000,000 

New  Orleans 

(1917) 

408,000,000 

Santos 

(1916) 

170,000,000 

Baltimore 

(1917) 

400,000,000 

Callao 

(1916) 

62,000,000 

Seattle 

(1917) 

370,000,000 

Montevideo 

(1911) 

75,000,000 

Shanghai 

(1916) 

349,000,000 

Tientsin 

(1916) 

54,000,000 

6.  Contrast  your  home  State  with  an  interior  or  coast  State  of  the  same 
latitude  in  respect  to  the  average  January  temperature  as  given  in  any  encyclo- 
pedia. In  respect  to  the  average  July  temi)erature.  How  do  j'ou  exjjlain  tliese 
contrasts? 

7.  Why  is  farming  so  thriving  in  Great  Britain  while  in  Labrador  in  tlie  same 
latitude  it  is  practically  impossible? 

8.  If  there  were  no  oceans  why  would  it  be  impossible  for  man  to  carry  on 
farming  in  the  vicinity  of  interior  bodies  of  water  like  the  Great  Lakes? 

9.  If  you  had  your  choice  between  a  visit  to  an  emerged  or  a  submerged  coast 
for  a  summer  vacation  which  would  j'ou  choose?     Why? 

10.  Give  three  advantages  that  are  enjoyed  by  a  city  on  a  coast  of  submer- 
gence that  are  denied  an  interior  city. 

11.  (a)  What  is  the  chief  fish  taken  in  each  section  Ust(>(I  in  tlic  table  ciitillcd 
"Fisheries  in  the  United  States"  in  the  World  Almanac/ 

h.  What  is  the  tonnage  of  the  average  boat  engaged  in  fisliing  in  each  section 
of  tli<'  country? 

c.  Why  are  the  Alaskan  vessels  far  larger  than  any  others? 

d.  Why  do  the  New  England  vessels  come  next? 

e.  Determine  roughly  the  number  of  j)er.sons  employed  ])er  vessel,  and  com- 
pare this  with  the  size  of  the  vessels. 

/.  On  the  Mississijipi  River  and  its  tributaries  how  does  it  happen  that  al- 
though the  tliirty-ninc  fishing  vessels  have  an  average  size  of  only  seven  tons, 
there  are  over  250  (ishcrnicn  Id  each  vessel? 


126  MAN'S  iu:lati()\  to  hodiks  of  watkr 

g.  State  all  the  reasons  wliy  the  Xew  Kiinlaml  States  are  still  the  preat  school 
of  sailors  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  their  fisheries  enii)l(>y  fewer  men  than  do  those 
of  other  sections? 

h.  Why  is  the  value  of  the  Xew  England  catcli  (jf  lish  ahnos!  as  great  as  that 
of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  where  twice  as  many  boats  and  over  twice  as  many 
men  ar  ■  employed? 

?.  Why  is  the  value  of  the  Alaskan  (atch  nearly  half  that  of  the  whole  cmmtry? 

12.  a.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  insert  in  their  pro])er  jilaees  the  finurcs 
given  in  the  accompanyitif!;  table  showing  the  aimual  value  of  fishery  imnlucts  per 
person. 

b.  What  country  or  .section  shows  best  the  efTecl  of  luu:li  latitude  on  fisheries? 
The  effect  of  low  latitude? 

c.  What  region  shows  best  the  cfTect  of  a  long  irregular  coastline  and  a  si)arse 
population?     The  effect  of  a  short  regular  coastline  and  a  dense  population? 

(i.  ^^■hat  region  shows  best  the  effect  of  broad  shallow  seas  adjacent  to  the 
coast?     Of  neighboring  seas  of  great  depth? 

e.  Why  do  Japan  and  England  rank  relatively  low  in  the  table,  although 
they  are  important   fishing  regions? 

/.  Why  does  Ala.ska  head  the  list? 

g.  Why  docs  Deinnark  rank  so  much  lower  than  Iceland? 

h.  Why  does  Germany  fall  near  the  bottom? 

i.  Explain  why  Italy  and  Ireland  with  their  long  seacoasts  catch  so  few  fish. 

APPROXIMATE  ANNUAL  VALUE  OF  FISHERY  PRODUCTS 
PER  PERSON 

Alaska (1917)  $800.00 

Newfoundland (1914)  40.00 

British  ColumI)ia (1017)  30 .  00 

Iceland (         )  ■-'•''  ()0 

Maritime  Pro  viiicesoi  Canada (1017)  17.00 

Norway (1913)  (iOO 

Scotland (191(i)  d.r,{) 

New  England (19()S)  2.50 

Pacific  States (1915)  2.00 

Denmark (1914)  1 .  50 

Portugal (1914)  1 .50 

Jai)an (1911)  1.10 

Englaii.l  and  Wales (19Ui)  1  .00 

France (1913)  1.00 

Holland (1912)  1.00 

Middle  Atlantic  States (1908)  .80 

Spain (1914)  .00 

Gulf  States (1908)  .50 

Ireland (1915)  .30 

South  Atlantic  States (1908)  .30 

C.'nnanv (1913)  .15 

Belgium (1912)  .15 

Italy (1913)  10 

Mississippi  Valley  States (1908)  U) 

India -05 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  OCEANS  127 

13.  Give  the  five  chief  reasons  why  it  is  possible  for  steamships  to  compete 
successfully  with  railroads  in  carrying  freight  between  New  Y'ork  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

14.  In  the  World  Almatiac,  look  up  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels  in  the  chief  coun- 
tries of  the  world.  By  using  a  table  of  population,  find  out  how  much  the  ton- 
nage amounts  to  per  million  inhabitants.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  insert 
the  figures  thus  obtained  and  sliade  the  map  to  show  four  grades.  Contrast  the 
countries  in  the  highest  grade  with  those  in  the  lowest  in  respect  to  conditions 
described  in  this  chapter  as  promoting  ocean  commerce. 

15.  In  order  to  i^repare  for  the  study  of  climate  in  a  later  chapter,  begin  a 
weather  record  as  indicated  in  Exercise  1,  Chapter  XII.  Also,  secure  copies  of 
the  daily  weather  map  for  the  ne.xt  three  or  four  months.  Study  these  to  see 
whether  you  can  detect  any  influences  of  continents  and  oceans. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  USE  OF  INLAND  WATERS 

The  most  important  inland  waters  comprise  lakes,  both  salt  and 
fresh,  rivers,  and  canals.  Like  the  oceans,  these  serve  as  (1)  regu- 
lators of  temperature,  (2)  sources  of  moisture,  (3)  as  an  aid  to  health, 
(4)  as  a  source  of  minerals,  (5)  as  a  source  of  food,  (6)  as  barriers,  and 
(7)  as  carriei-s  of  commerce.  They  also  serve  as  (8)  sources  of  water 
supply,  (9)  as  a  source  of  power,  and  (10)  as  a  means  of  irrigation, 
fertilization,  and  drainage.  This  last  pertains  so  largely  to  agiiculture 
that  it  is  dofrrrcd  to  Part   IV. 

Inland  Waters  as  Regulators  of  Temperature. — As  regulators 
of  temperature  even  the  largest  lakes  are  of  little  importance  com- 
pared with  oceans.  Yet  the  southeastern  shores  of  Lakes  IMichigan 
and  Erie  arc  great  regions  for  gi'apes  and  other  fruit  because  the 
water,  which  retains  the  heat  of  suinnici-  in  the  fall,  warms  the  north- 
west winds  and  prevents  early  frosts.  Also  in  the  spring  the  lakes 
retain  the  low  temperature  of  winter  and  thus  prevent  the  fruit  trees 
from  flowering  too  early  and  being  nipped  b}^  the  frost.  In  the  same 
way  Cliicago  is  a  much  more  healthful  and  vigorous  citj'  because  in 
sunmier  the  hottest  days  arc  often  relic\-ed  by  lake  breezes  which  blow 
like  sea  breezes  in  the  afternoon.  Even  a  small  lake  or  a  broad  river 
has  a  sUght  cooling  effect  on  the  wind  in  summer  and  a  warming  effect 
in  the  autumn,  when  the  water  does  not  grow  cold  so  fast  as  the  land. 

Inland  Waters  as  Sources  of  Moisture. — In  this  respect  lakes 
and  rivers  are  no  nunv  ini])()rtant  than  as  regulators  of  temperature. 
Nevertheless  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Caspian  Sea  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Elburz  Mountains  are  very  well  watered  by  rain  derived 
from  this  great  salt  lake,  and  form  a  striking  contrast  to  the  barren 
deserts  on  either  side.  The  ('as])ian  Sea,  however,  is  so  large  as 
to  be  almost  like  a  part  of  the  ocean,  and  the  high  mountains  at  its 
southern  end  would  cause  rainfall  even  if  it  were  dry.  An  inland 
body  of  water  as  large  as  Lake  Michigan  receives  only  a  little  more 
rain  on  its  eastern  or  leeward  side  than  on  (he  windward  side. 
Smaller  lak(\';  have  practically  no  ct't'cci  on  rainfall. 

Inland  Waters  as  Aids  to  Health. — ^When  it  comes  to  health 
and  recreation  inland  watei-s  take  high  rank,  although  not  so  impor- 
tant as  the  ocean.     How  high  they  stand  is  evident  from  the  way  in 

128 


THE   USE  OF  INLAND   WATERS  129 

which  little  summer  houses  skirt  the  shores  of  lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers 
all  over  the  United  States.  The  boj^  who  goes  to  the  swimming  hole 
on  a  hot  summer  day  is  illustrating  the  importance  of  inland  waters 
in  this  respect.  So,  too,  is  his  sister  who  takes  her  sewing  down  by 
the  river  to  enjoy  the  cool  breeze,  and  his  college  cousin  who  goes  to 
Canada  on  a  canoe  trip.  Few  summer  resorts  are  more  famous  than 
those  around  the  Rangeley  Lakes,  at  Lakes  Champlain,  George  and 
Placid,  and  along  the  shores  of  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan. 
The  Thousand  Isles  in  the  picturesque  St.  Lawrence  River  are  equally 
noteworthy,  as  are  Lakes  Louise  and  Tahoe  in  the  western  mountains. 

Inland  Waters  as  a  Source  of  Minerals. — Fresh-water  lakes  and 
rivers  do  not  furnish  minerals,  but  other  inland  bodies  of  water  are  a 
source  of  medicinal  salts,  iron  ore,  peat,  salt,  and  potash.  ]\Iany 
springs  like  those  of  Saratoga  are  full  of  dissolved  minerals  which  have 
a  most  valuable  healing  quality.  Swamps  are  the  source  of  bog  iron 
ore.  To-day  this  is  not  important,  but  the  fii-st  iron  foundrj'^  in 
America  was  established  at  Lynn  in  1643  to  smelt  the  ore  from 
neighboring  bogs.  Swamps  also  furnish  peat,  which  may  be  called  a 
half  mineralized  vegetable  product.  IMost  of  the  world's  coal  appears 
to  have  been  formed  in  ancient  swamps  which  were  part  of  the  earth's 
inland  waters.  Salt  lakes  also  furnish  not  only  rock  salt,  such  as  is 
obtained  by  evaporating  the  water  in  little  ponds  on  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  but  also  rarer  minerals,  such  as  potash,  which  is  found 
abundantly  in  many  little  lakes  in  western  Nebraska.  ]\Iany 
important  salt  deposits  such  as  those  deep  down  in  the  earth  near 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  were  laid  down  millions  of  years  ago  in  salt  lakes 
that  were  gradually  drying  up. 

Inland  Waters  as  Sources  of  Food. — Most  of  the  stories  of  fisher- 
men are  based  on  the  experiences  of  amateure  in  inland  waters.  Li 
spite  of  all  the  stories,  however,  the  amount  of  food  procured  hi  this 
way  is  small.  This  is  largely  because  in  most  inland  watei-s  the 
suppl}'  of  fish  is  too  small  to  tempt  professional  fishermen.  The 
fish  are  caught  by  amatein-s  who  go  fishing  only  a  few  times  each  year. 
Nevertheless  some  rivere  like  the  Illinois  and  some  of  the  larger  lakes 
support  far  more  fishermen  in  proportion  to  their  size  than  do  the 
seas.  These  men  and  those  who  catch  salmon  and  other  fish  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers  entering  the  sea  procure  two-fifths  of  the  whole  catch 
in  the  United  States.  In  Russia,  also,  the  Volga,  Don,  and  other 
rivei-s  support  very  extensive  fisheries,  the  most  famous  of  wliicli 
are  the  sturgeon  fisheries,  where  caviar,  or  sturgeon  roe,  is  procured. 

Inland  Waters  as  Barriers.— The  importance  of  inland  watei-s  as 
barriei*s  is  even  gieater  than  that  of  the  oceans.  Every  pei"son  who 
reads  this  book  has  probably  been  put  to  inconvenience  hundreds 


130  MAXS  ri:latiox  to  bodies  of  water 

of  times  because  of  some  comparatively  slifj;ht  water  barrier.  Per- 
haps it  was  only  a  In'ook  across  which  it  was  necessary  to  juniji.  Or 
perhaps  it  was  a  river  which  made  it  necessary  to  p;o  several  blocks 
out  of  tile  direct  route  to  reach  a  bridge  or  ferry.  The  reason  why 
inlantl  watei-s  luv  more  troulilesome  than  the  Aast  water  barrier  of 
the  ocean  is,  their  small  size  and  jjreat  number.  Because  they  are 
small,  one  can  rarely  tra\'<'l  far  on  them  in  the  right  direction.  Be- 
cause they  are  numerous,  fre([uent  ])ridf!;es  are  necessary  along  most 
routes,  or  else  one  nuist  keep  changing  from  land  transi)ortation  to 
water  transportation. 

The  Mississippi  River  as  a  Great  Water  Barrier. — The  IMississippi 
river  illiisti-ates  many  of  the  ways  in  which  inland  watere  scn'e  as 
barriei*8.  On  the  nui])  notice  how  largely  this  great  river  forms  the 
boundary  l)etween  States.  This  is  natural,  for  the  stream  is  so  wide, 
so  deep,  and  so  subject  to  gi'eat  floods  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  cross  it 
in  boats  or  to  bridge  it.  Until  Memphis  is  reached,  500  miles  up- 
stream there  is  no  bridge,  and  of  the  two  there  only  one  is  passable  for 
wagons.  The  next  bridge  is  near  Cape  Girardeau,  175  miles  farther 
up,  and  1  he  next  at  St.  Louis,  125  miles  still  farther.  Not  till  St.  Louis 
is  reached,  over  <S00  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  1270  as  nu^is- 
ured  along  the  windings  of  the  river,  is  there  a  second  l)ridge  which 
can  be  crossed  by  wagons  and  foot  passengers  as  well  as  by  trains. 

In  order  to  realize  the  importance  of  the  Mississippi  barrier, 
consider  how  many  di'lays  it  causes.  Even  where  a  ferry  is  close  at 
hand,  it  is  a  slow  way  of  travel.  At  New  Orleans,  for  instance,  all 
railroads  connecting  with  the  west  have  to  run  their  trains  on  to 
feriyboats.  This  takes  time,  for  the  cai"s  have  to  be  shunted  back 
and  forth,  the  ferryboat  moves  slowly,  and  the  landing  stage  must  be 
raised  or  lowered  so  that  the  tracks  on  the  land  and  on  the  boat  meet 
exactly.  Moreover,  the  loss  of  lif(^  on  the  river,  the  extra  effort 
involved  in  crossing  it,  and  the  long  dehiys  all  cause  expense,  and 
so  does  the  building  of  boats,  britlges,  and  tunnels,  so  that  every 
water  barrier  is  a  great  consumer  of  money. 

To  sum  it  all  up,  the  chief  reason  why  the  Mississippi  and  other 
bodies  of  water  are  baiTiei-s  ih  that  they  re([uire  a  change  in  the  mode 
of  traveling.  The  train  nnist  run  on  an  ex]xMisive  bridge  or  ferryboat 
instead  of  an  ordinary  track;  the.  ])edes1ri;iti  inuNt  swim  or  get  a  canoe 
or  other  boat.  The  change  is  what  makes  the  troul)le,  for  when  a 
man  or  a  )iiece  of  freight  is  once  aboard  tlie  boat  it  is  a  chea])  and  easy 
means  of  conveyance.  The  m;in  who  keei)s  a  motor  boat  on  the 
banks  of  the.  Mississi])))!  has  the  means  of  overcoming  the  water 
barrier  almost  as  effcictively  as  his  automobile  overcomes  distance 
on  the  land. 


THE   USE   OF   INLAND   WATERS  131 

How  Water  Barriers  Determine  the  Location  of  Cities :  London. — 
Since  bodies  of  water  aet  as  barriers,  the  places  where  it  is  easy  to 
cross  them  are  likely  to  develop  into  towns.  This  is  because  roads 
converge  at  such  places,  and  people  are  often  obliged  to  stop  there. 
London  is  a  good  example.  Ten  or  more  centuries  ago  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  England  was  the  southeastern  corner.  The  next 
most  important  part  was  the  region  north  of  the  lower  Thames,  and 
south  of  the  curious  square-cornered  indentation  called  "The  Wash." 
The  silk  merchant  who  went  from  Cambridge  to  Paris,  for  example, 
or  the  pilgrim  who  w-as  returning  from  Rome  to  Norfolk,  was  obliged 
to  cross  the  Thames,  or  else  go  around  its  head.  The  lower  reaches 
of  the  river  w^ere  not  easy  to  cross  because  the  stream  widens  toward 
the  sea  and  is  bordered  by  marshes.  Hence  traffic  converged  at  the 
lowest  point  where  the  stream  is  narrow  and  the  banks  are  firm,  and 
there  London  grew  up.  Its  site  was  Avhere  the  water  barrier  could  be 
easily  crossed.  That  is  why  London  Bridge,  at  the  point  where  the 
river  was  first  easily  crossed,  is  one  of  the  world's  most  famous  struc- 
tures. 

Of  course  other  factor  helped  to  cause  London  to  become  so  great, 
for  the  city  lies  at  the  head  of  ocean  navigation  on  the  Thames,  and 
the  Thames  estuary  faces  two  other  estuaries — those  of  the  Scheldt 
and  the  Rhine.  In  our  day  the  people  of  London  do  not  think  much 
about  the  Thames  as  a  barrier.  Nevertheless  they  often  have  to  go 
out  of  their  way  to  get  across  the  river,  even  though  there  are  fourteen 
passenger  bridges,  one  ferry,  and  four  tunnels.  These  facilities  for 
ordinary  traffic,  aside  from  the  railways,  cost  between  thirty  and  forty 
million  dollars,  and  the  cost  of  maintaining  them  and  of  jiaying  inter- 
est on  the  original  investment  is  about  two  million  dollars  a  year. 
The  Thames  is  still  a  costly  barrier. 

Other  Cities. — Paris,  at  the  little  Isle  of  Orleans,  where  the  Seine 
is  easily  crossed,  is  another  citj-  whose  location  was  originally  deter- 
mined by  a  river  acting  as  a  barrier.  The  city  has  grown  great 
because  it  lies  near  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultin-al  region  known  as 
the  Paris  Basin.  So  prosperous  a  region  needs  a  (■it\'  of  considerable 
size  as  its  center,  but  aside  from  the  island  which  helps  to  overcome 
the  barrier  of  the  Seine  and  which  at  one  time  served  as  a  stronghold 
protected  by  w'ater,  there  is  little  reason  why  the  city  should  be 
located  at  one  place  rather  than  another.  In  the  same  way  Cairo  is 
located  at  a  point  where  the  Nile  begins  to  divide  into  the  many 
branches  or  distributaries  of  its  delta,  and  hence  where  an  ini]iortant 
ferry  is  maintained,  since  it  is  easier  and  cheaper  to  maintain  one 
large  feny  than  many  small  ones.  Chicago's  gi-owth  in  the  lii-st 
favorable  location  west  of  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan  is  ilue 


132  MANS   RELATION   TO   BODIES   (JF   WATER 

to  the  fact  that  the  lake  is  a  ban-ier.  All  the  traffic  from  the  North 
Atlantic  States  to  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  the  Dakotas  must 
converge  at  the  lake's  southern  end,  and  hence  a  gi'eat  railroad  center 

had  to  trrow  \i]^  there. 

The  Expense  of  Water  Barriers:  New  York  City. — The  city  of 
New  York,  unlik(>  London  and  Paris,  owes  its  location  not  to  water 
barricM's,  ])ut  to  the  excellent  water  conununication  with  which  it  is 
provided.  The  very  water  which  affords  such  good  means  of  com- 
munication with  Ijii'o])c  and  other  far-away  ])laci's,  howevcn',  is  very 
troublesome  as  a  hindrance  to  local  communication.  This  is  l>ecause 
New  York  is  l)uilt  on  isjatuls.  IManhattan  Island  and  Long  Island 
contain  more  important  parts  of  the  city  than  the  mainland.  "While 
the  city  was  small  the  so-called  "rivers"  which  separate  the  islands 
and  the  mainland  caused  little  trouble,  for  f(>w  people  made  joiu'neys 
out  of  town.  In  tinu\  however,  the  lower  end  of  Alanhattan  became 
thickl}'  covered  with  buildings.  Thereu])()n  the  price  of  land  began 
to  rise.  People  who  were  ])lanning  new  business  enter])rises  did  not 
want  to  locate  beyond  the  water  barriers,  but  wci-e  willing  to  pay  high 
prices  for  land  near  the  center  of  the  city.  Accordinglj^  to-day  in 
some  parts  of  New  York  a  single  scjuare  foot  of  land  is  worth  over 
$1000.  A  piece  the  size  of  an  ordinary  school  desk  is  worth  about 
S'")000.  From  the  nwrv  rent  of  an  area  the  size;  of  five  desks  the  owner 
could  get  much  inore  than  the  average  wages  of  a  laborer,  or  enough 
to  support  a  family  in  moderate  coinfort. 

When  land  l)ecame  so  valu;d)le  ])eo])le  began  to  try  to  over(^ome 
the  difficulty  due  to  the  water  barrier  by  erecting  higher  and  higher 
buildings.  New  York  has  now  more  than  200  over  foiu'teen  stories 
high.  The  lowest  of  these  tower  about  200  fcn^t,  whiU^  tlu'  highest, 
with  fifty  or  more  stories,  rise  700  feet,  and  some  acconunodate  about 
15,000  workers.  The  streets  between  tlu m  aic  like  dwp  canyons,  so 
gloomy  that  rents  in  their  lower  stories  have  decreased.  When  the 
elevators  cease  to  run,  as  has  sometimes  hapi)ened  during  a  strike, 
some  of  the  workers  are  actually  unable  to  cHmb  to  their  offices,  or 
take  half  an  hour  to  do  it. 

While  the  sk3'-scra])er  type  of  architecture  was  being  develojied 
as  one  response  to  the  water  barrier,  a  gi'eat  many  ferries  were  coming 
into  existence  as  another  response.  Thus  large  mnnbers  of  ])eo])le 
were  able  to  build  homes  in  Brooklyn  or  on  the  .lei-sey  side  of  the 
Hudson,  where  land  is  relatively  chea])  and  the  sui'ioundings  pleasant. 
On  this  accomit  the  ferry  system  gi'ew  to  such  ])ro]iortions  that 
there  are  now  over  forty  lines.  Th(>  railroads,  too,  except  those  now 
known  as  the  New  ^'ork  Central,  ;ind  the  New  York,  New  IIavi>n  & 
Hartford,  had  to  carry  tlieii-i)assengers  and  freight  to  the  city  by  boat. 


THE  USE   OF   INLAND   WATERS  133 

In  addition  to  all  this  the  New  Yorkers,  in  thoir  desire  to  overcome 
the  water  barriei-s  of  their  island  home,  have  ])nilt  five  huge  ])ridges 
to  Brooklyn  at  the  enormous  expense  of  890,000,000.  They  have 
also  dug  tunnels  under  the  rivers,  five  to  Brooklyn  and  three  to  the 
Jersey  side.  The  cost  of  the  ferries,  bridges,  and  tunnels,  by  which 
New  York  overcomes  the  water  barriers,  must  have  been  as  much  as 
a  billion  dollars.  Every  year  the  interest  on  this  amounts  to  $10 
for  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  cit3^  Although  the  water 
of  New  York's  harbor  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  city's  greatness, 
the  water  between  the  different  parts  of  the  city  is  a  most  expensive 
hindrance. 

Inland  Waterways  as  Carriers  of  Commerce. — ^Inland  waterways, 
including  rivers,  canals,  and  lakes,  are  especially  important  as  carriers 
of  commerce  in  backward  countries  like  China,  Siberia,  and  northern 
Brazil,  which  possess  large  rivei"s,  but  have  not  a  highly  developed 
railway  system.  They  are  also  important  in  adA'anced  countries 
like  Holland  and  Germany,  where  numerous  ri\'ei-s  flow  through 
densely  populated  plains.  Nevertheless,  in  view  of  the  chea]iness  of 
water  transportation,  the  use  of  inland  waterways  is  by  no  means  so 
great  as  would  be  expected.  This  is  iDecause  a  good  inland  waterway 
must  be  favorable  in  each  of  the  following  respects,  all  of  which  are 
rarely  satisfactory  in  a  single  bodj''  of  water:  (1)  depth  and  breadth; 
(2)  length;  (3)  character  of  the  course;  (4)  current;  (5)  seasonal 
changes;   (6)  hinterland;  and   (7)  direction. 

(1)  Depth  and  Breadth. — These  two  qualities  are  closely  connected 
and  both  depend  largely  on  volume.  If  a  river  comes  from  a  region 
of  heav}^  rainfall  it  is  likely  to  have  great  volume  and  hence  to  be 
deep  enough  and  broad  enough  for  important  traffic.  The  Amazon 
is  such  a  river.  For  a  distance  of  2300  miles  its  vast  volume  causes 
it  to  average  120  feet  deep  and  to  have  a  width  of  more  than  a  mile 
and  often  five  or  six.  So  vast  is  the  river  that  while  a  ship  is  still 
beyond  sight  of  land  the  sailors  sometimes  let  down  buckets  -and  draw 
up  fresh  water  from  what  seems  to  he  the  ocean,  Init  is  really  the  enor- 
mously wide  mouth  of  the  river.  Cases  have  actually  been  known 
wh(n-e  sailoi-s  have  dicnl  of  thirst  when  adrift  on  the  fresh  water  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ajnazon. 

The  Rio  Grande  illustrates  the  opposite  condition.  Although  it 
is  half  as  long  as  the  Amazon,  it  is  practically  muised  for  navigation. 
It  comes  from  a  region  of  such  sparse  rainfall  that  it  has  little  volume 
and  hence  very  slight  depth.  Even  at  its  mouth  it  is  shallow,  and 
higher  up  it  sometimes  is  dry.  On  almost  all  rivei-s  the  ])resence 
of  sandbai-s  at  the  mouth  and  of  other  shallow  places  higher  up  is  one 
of  the  chief  hindrances  to  navigation. 


134  MAX  S   RELATION    TO    BODIES   OF    WATER 

(2)  Naviciahic  Lcncjth. —  The  length  of  tlio  navip;al)lo  stretches 
on  a  river  is  of  tlie  fii-st  inqiortance.  Tlie  Yangtse,  for  exani])h\  is 
navigable  for  lOOO  miles  in  one  continuous  stretcii  from  its  mouth 
far  into  the  heart  of  China.  Tliis  makes  it  of  great  value  for  com- 
merce. The  Orange  River,  ou  the  contrary,  although  it  has  an 
actual  length  of  1300  miles,  is  of  no  \  alue  for  navigation,  because  the 
sti-etches  where  boats  can  ply  extend  only  a  few  score  miles.  It 
would  never  pay  to  ship  goods  fifty  miles  by  boat,  then  thirty  Ijy  rail, 
again  one  hundred  by  boat,  once  more  by  rail,  and  so  on.  The  reason 
is  that  trans-shi])jnent  is  very  expensive.  With  some  kinds  of  freiglit 
it  actually  costs  more  to  load  a  ton  onto  a  steamer  and  take  it  off 
again  than  to  carry  it  all  the  way  from  New  "iOik  to  Livtn-pool,  and 
even  with  kinds  that  can  be  loaded  inex])eiisively  a  single  loatling 
costs  as  much  as  scores  of  miles  of  actual  transportation.  Hence  no 
waterAvay  is  of  much  use  for  commerce  unless  its  navigable  reaches 
are  long  and  uninterrupted. 

(3)  Character  of  Course. — Straight  rivers  like  the  Amazon,  Hudson, 
and  St.  Lawrence  are  far  the  best  for  navigation.  On  rivers  with 
winding  coui-ses  not  only  are  distances  nuich  increased,  Init  the 
channel  is  ahnost  sure  to  wind  still  more,  so  that  little  s])eed  can  be 
made,  and  there  is  danger  of  running  aground.  On  the  Mississi])])i, 
which  has  an  extremely  winding  covn'se,  some  of  the  meandei-s  or 
bends  are  so  extreme  that  after  tiowing  ten  or  fifteen  mik>s  around  a 
horse-shoe  curve  the  stream  comes  back  to  within  a  few  hundicd 
yards  of  its  earlier  position. 

(4)  Current. — The  more  gentle  the  current  of  a  ri\(M-  the  better  it 
is  for  navigation.  The  great  Volga  River,  even  at  its  sour<-e,  is  only 
665  feet  above  sea  level,  while  1500  miles  from  its  mouth  it  is  only  190 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean  and  280  al)()ve  the  ( 'aspian.  Henc  e 
throughout  most  of  its  course  the  current  is  so  gentle  that  slii])s  arc 
little  impe(l(Ml  and  locks  and  dams  are  unnecessary.  Contrast  the 
Volga  with  the  IJrahmaputra,  which  rises  15,500  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  flows  so  swiftly  over  rapids  and  falls  that  along  nnich  of  its  course 
ncj  one  has  ever  used  a  boat.  The  Zambesi  is  another  gr(>at  river, 
along  which  numerous  rai)itls,  in  ad<htion  to  the  great  \'ictoria  1-alls, 
divide  the  navigable  water  into  sections  too  short  to  b(^  of  much  use. 
'Ihe  other  great  .Xfricaii  rivers  suffer  th(>  same  disadvantage,  l-'ven 
the  Nile,  which  has  2000  miles  of  uninterrupted  navigation  at  high 
water,  is  at  most  seasons  broken  into  many  sect  ions  by  rapids,  or 
cataracts,  as  they  are  callid. 

(5)  Seasonal  Cfinnfirs.  j'ract  ically  every  river  is  sut)ject  tosfi-oiig 
seasonal  changes.  T'loods  and  droughts  are  more  or  less  universal, 
while  freezing  is  common.     The  rivers  most  free  from  floods  come 


THE  USE   OF   INLAND   WATERS  135 

from  great  lakes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  or  receive  an 
abundant  supply  of  rain  at  all  seasons,  as  is  the  case  with  the  two 
greatest  equatorial  rivers,  the  Amazon  and  Congo.  The  rivers  of 
Siberia  have  the  disadvantage  not  only  of  floods,  but  of  ice.  In  the 
winter  the  Amur,  for  example,  is  frozen  for  six  months;  then  when  the 
ice  breaks  up,  gTeat  floods  occur  and  would  wash  away  not  only  the 
shipping,  but  the  floating  docks,  wliich  are  the  only  kind  possible, 
if  these  w^ere  not  all  safely  moored  in  harbors  of  refuge.  Later, 
however,  in  IVIay  and  June,  the  floods  make  navigation  easy,  since 
the  shallows  are  deep  and  the  rapids  smooth.  Finally,  in  the  fall 
before  the  river  freezes  up,  it  falls  so  low  that  ships  are  greatlj^  ham- 
pered by  the  danger  of  running  aground. 

(6)  Hinterland. — Even  if  an  inland  waterway  were  ideal  in  other 
respects,  it  would  not  carry  much  commerce  unless  it  had  a  well-popu- 
lated hinterland  able  to  supply  raw  materials,  food,  or  manufactured 
goods  in  exchange  for  products  brought  from  afar.  Compare  the 
Danube  and  the  Yukon.  The  Danube  flows  through  some  of  the 
most  densely  populated  and  progressive  parts  of  the  world.  Hence  it 
carries  thousands  of  boats  of  all  sizes  from  small  ocean  steamers  and 
large  canal  barges  down  to  rowboats.  So  far  as  natural  advantages 
for  navigation  are  concerned,  the  Yukon  is  little  inferior  to  the  Danube 
except  for  the  long  frozen  period  from  October  to  April.  Neverthe- 
less, it  does  not  carry  one  boat  for  a  hundred  on  the  Danube,  for  its 
hinterland  contains  only  a  few  minere  who  do  not  consume  nmch,  and 
do  not  furnish  any  articles  of  export  in  quantities  large  enough  to 
supply  cargoes. 

(7)  Direction. — The  direction  is  the  one  feature  of  inland  water- 
ways which  man  cannot  control.  He  can  deepen  and  broaden  a 
river,  or  increase  the  navigable  length  and  overcome  falls  and  rapids 
by  building  canals  and  locks.  He  can  straighten  windings,  control 
the  current,  overcome  the  effects  of  seasonal  changes,  and  populate  the 
hinterland,  but  he  cannot  change  the  general  (Urcction  in  which  a  river 
flows.  Yet  this  condition  is  tlie  most  important  in  determining  the 
value  of  an  inland  waterway.  The  Rhine  is  a  relatively  small  river, 
but  because  it  flows  toward  the  place  where  England  lu^ai-s  the  con- 
tinent, and  where  are  located  Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  ami  London,  it. 
supports  an  incredibly  active  connnei'ce.  The  INIacKenzic  and  the  ( )h 
are  far  larger  than  the  lvhin(%  but  in  a  year  they  carry  no  more  com- 
merce than  the  Rhine  doc^s  in  a  day,  for  they  flow  toward  tlu^  frozen 
north  instead  of  toward  the  i)laces  where  trade  and  manufacturing 
are  active. 

The  Good  Inland  Waterway  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great 
Lakes. — Let  us  now  take  a  few  of  the  world's  great  systems  of  inland 


136  MAN'S  RELATION  TO  BODIES  OF  WATER 

waterwaj's  and  see  how  they  stand  in  rospoct  to  the  sovcn  require- 
ments mentioned  aV)ove.  The  St.  Lawrence  River  and  the  (Ireat 
Lakes  form  one  of  the  world's  finest  systems.  They  furnish  a  broad, 
deej),  and  relatively  straight  waterway  penetrating  a])out  1700  miles 
mto  the  interior.  There  is  some  difficulty,  however,  because  of  the 
Lachine  and  Sainte  Marie  rapids  and  the  falls  of  Niagara,  but  these 
have  been  partly  overcome  by  canals  and  locks  so  that  shi]is  drawing 
14  feet  can  go  from  the  sea  to  Chicago  or  Duluth.  Another  and  more 
serious  difficulty  is  that  although  seasonal  changes  have  no  gi-eat 
effect  upon  the  depth  of  the  water,  they  cause  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  the  Great  Lakes  to  be  closed  by  ice  for  three  months  during 
the  winter.  Such  difficulties,  however,  are  more  than  compensated 
by  the  wondei-ful  hinterland  which  includes  the  great  grain  regions  of 
the  central  plains,  the  unexcelled  iron  deposits  near  Lake  Superior,  the 
immense  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  rich  farm  lands  of  New 
York  and  southern  Canada.  ]\Ioreover,  throughout  the  Great  Lakes 
region  the  direction  of  tiiis  gi'cat  waterway  is  almost  ideal,  for  it  con- 
nects regions  of  three  gi'eat  t\T3es  producing  food,  raw  materials, 
and  manufactured  goods.  Down  the  St.  Lawrence  the  direction  is 
also  excellent  so  far  as  relations  with  Europe  are  concerned.  It  would 
be  far  better,  however,  if  the  river  flowed  to  New  York  and  the  givat 
markets  on  the  Atlantic  coast  instead  of  to  the  ban-en  coasts  of  Labra- 
dor and  Quebec.  This  has  made  it  advisable  to  dig  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal,  362  miles  long,  which  extends  from  Buffalo  to 
Albany,  where  it  connects  with  the  Hudson  River.  This  canal, 
however,  is  only  12  feet  deep,  so  that  neither  lake  nor  ocean  steamers 
can  enter  it,  and  trans-shipment  is  necessary  at  each  end.  For  this 
reason  it  carries  only  one-fiftieth  as  many  tons  of  freight  as  the  Sault 
Sainte  Marie  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior.  In  1920  the  tonnage  car- 
ried by  the  canals  of  New  York  State  was  only  about  a  fourth  as 
great  as  in  18S0,  ])ut.  it,  is  h()i)(>d  that  this  will  now  ra]ii(lly  incn^asn. 

The  Excellent  Waterway  of  the  Rhine  and  the  German  Canals. — • 
The  system  of  inland  waterways  of  which  the  Rhine  is  the  main  artery 
owes  its  importance  to  its  hinterland  and  its  direction.  Because 
the  Rhine  flows  through  an  extremely  populous  and  progressive 
region  and  toward  the  center  of  tlic  world's  activities,  the  Germans 
and  Dutch  have  fomul  it  worth  while  to  deepen  and  broaden  it;  to 
increase  its  navigal)lc  length  by  canalizing  certain  parts;  to  straighten 
out  the  windings;  to  provide  cables  to  pull  ships  up  through  the  strong- 
est currents;  and  to  make  provision  for  the  regulation  of  floods.  To 
take  further  advantage  of  this  excellent  waterway,  the  Germans  have 
built  many  canals  to  connect  it  with  the  Weser,  Elbe,  and  other  rivers 
farther  east.     The  canals  greatly  enlarge  the  hinterland,  and  cnabli? 


THE   USE  OF  INLAND   WATERS 


137 


138  MAN'S  RELATION  TO  BODIES  OF  WATER 

traffic  to  move  east  and  west  rather  than  in  a  more  northerly  direction 
along  the  line  of  the  main  rivei"s.  Thus  goods  from  the  \istula 
River  can  now  be  earned  to  Holland  l)^'  inland  waterways  without 
breaking  bulk.  The  Khine  and  the  Cierman  canals  well  illustrate 
the  tendency  of  conmierce  to  aim  straight  at  the  most  thicklj-  settled 
industrial  regions.  A  detour  to  the  Baltic  Sea,  where  the  suiTounding 
population  is  much  less  dense  than  around  the  North  Sea,  is  much  like 
a  detoin-  down  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Newfoundland. 

The  Superior  Inland  Waterway  of  the  Yangtse.^ — The  Yangtse 
River,  more  than  any  other  inland  waterway,  fuliills  all  the  condi- 
tions mentioned  in  this  chapter.  It  is  generally  so  broad  and  deep 
that  even  without  artificial  improvement  ocean  steamers  of  6000 
tons  can  usually  reach  Hankow,  al)out  700  miles  from  the  coast.  In 
this  stretch  the  windings  are  not  particularly  troublesome,  and  the 
cuiTent  is  negligible,  for  the  river  falls  only  an  inch  per  mile.  Al- 
though floods  raise  the  river  40  or  50  feet  at  Hankow,  they  do  not 
seriously  hinder  traffic.  In  fact,  for  these  700  miles,  the  advantages 
for  navigation  are  little  inferior  to  those  of  the  Amazon,  while  the 
liinterland  is  far  superior.  Above  Hankow  small  steamers  can  go 
another  300  miles  to  Ichang,  where  the  river  is  still  only  130  feet 
above  sea  level.  Then  rai^ds  intervene  for  350  miles,  but  so  large 
is  the  river,  so  excellent  its  direction,  and  so  rich  and  populous  the 
Szechuan  hinterland  that  much  traffic  is  carried  even  here,  while 
higher  up  the  stream  is  again  easily  navigable. 

Ever>'^vherc  for  nc^tirly  2000  miles  the  Yangtse  flows  through  a 
region  full  of  industrious  people,  so  that  its  hinterland  is  one  of  the 
best  in  the  world.  It  contains  more  people  than  the  entire  western 
hemisphere.  If  ever  these  should  become  as  energetic  as  those  in  the 
hinterlands  of  the  Rhine  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  ships  might  pass  as 
frequently  as  at  the  Straits  of  Dover.  The  direction  of  the  Yangtse  is 
ideal,  for  the  river  runs  through  the  heart  of  the  most  fertile  part  of 
China  directly  toward  the  part  of  the  coast  where  the  greatest  cities 
are  located  and  where  trade  is  most  active.  The  importance  of  the 
stream  is  still  further  increased  by  large  navigable  tributaries,  the 
chief  of  which  join  the  main  stream  near  Hankow,  and  by  the  drand 
Canal,  which  connects  the  mouth  of  the  river  with  Tientsin  and  the 
great  cities  of  the  ll\v:mg  \':illcy. 

The  Great  Difficulty  of  the  Mississippi  Waterway. — In  jnoportion 
to  its  size  and  length  the  Misslssi])pi  River  is  used  far  less  than  the 
St.  Lawrence,  Rhine,  and  Yangtse.  Li  fact,  the  tonnage  carried  by 
the  IMississijipi  is  less  than  that  of  many  far  smaller  rivers  like  the 
Elbe.  This  is  sun^rising  in  view  of  the  many  advantages  of  the  river. 
The  channel  has  a  depth  of  9  feet  to  St.  Louis,  r27()  miles  from  the 


THE   USE   OF   INLAND   WATERS  139 

mouth,  whereas  the  Rhine  has  an  equal  depth  for  only  a  c[uarter  as 
far,  to  Mainz.  The  length  of  the  ]\Iississi])i)i  is  a  wonderful  ad\'an- 
tage,  for  with  its  main  Ijranch,  the  Missouri,  it  constitutes  the  longest 
river  in  the  world.  The  current  is  also  cojn]~)aratively  favorable,  for 
though  it  is  rapid  in  places,  the  river  falls  only  4  inches  a  mile  from 
St.  Louis  downward.  Finally,  the  hinterland  is  ideal,  for  it  includes 
the  most  fertile  parts  of  the  United  States.  Against  these  advantages 
stand  two  minor  and  one  main  disadvantage.  The  disadvantages 
of  the  many  windings  of  the  river's  lower  course  ajid  of  the  seasonal 
floods  could  be  overcome  without  undue  expense.  The  nuiin  dis- 
advantage is  the  insurmountable  drawback  that  the  river  does  not 
flow  toward  the  eastern  manufacturing  districts  and  Europe,  which 
are  the  great  markets  for  the  food  and  raw  materials  of  its  rich  hinter- 
land. If  the  INIississippi  flowed  from  St.  Louis  to  Baltunore  or 
Philadelphia  many  peo]ile  believe  it  would  pay  to  spend  nuich  more 
than  the  hundivd  million  already  spent  in  improving  navigation,  and 
the  river  might  carry  far  more  freight  than  any  other  inland  waterway. 
I'nfortunately,  however,  the  ]\Iississii)pi  lies  at  right  angles  to  the 
main  lines  of  traffic.  Thus,  like  the  railroads  that  cross  the  continents 
from  north  to  south,  it  cannot  vie  with  lines  of  communication  that 
run  east  and  west.  Only  v/hen  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with 
South  America  and  the  Orient  l)y  way  of  the  Panama  Canal  develo]« 
to  large  proportions  will  the  gi'eat  river  come  into  its  own  as  one  of 
the  world's  main  inland  waterwaj-s. 

(8)  Why  a  Large  Water-  Supply  is  Needed. — As  people  l)ecome 
more  ci\'ilized,  the  need  of  a  large  water  supply  steadily  increases. 
It  is  needed  for  three  main  uses:  (1)  domestic;  (2)  numici])al;  and 
(3)  industrial.  The  domestic  uses  l^egin  with  drinking,  which  de- 
mands only  about  half  a  gallon  per  pcn'son  each  day  on  an  average. 
Cooldng  reciuu-es  a  larger  amount,  while  washing  and  l)athing  demand 
many  gallons  ])er  day.  To  this  must  l>e  added  the  water  drunk  by 
domestic  annuals,  and  that  which  is  used  for  watering  i)lants,  gar- 
dens, and  lawns. 

The  munici])al  uses  include  all  that  is  needed  for  fire  protection, 
public  fountains  and  drinking  places,  street  sprinkling,  and  the  flush- 
ing of  sewers.  This  amount  varies  from  nothing  in  small  villages  to 
many  gallons  ])cr  jicrson  in  large  cities.  In  the  same  \va>'  t  he  anidunt 
of  water  used  for  industrial  pur})oses  varies  from  nothing  u])  to  a 
quantity  much  larger  than  for  the  domestic  and  munici]ial  ])ur])oses 
combined.  It  includes  the  water  used  for  engine-  l)(»ilei-s,  for  con- 
densing steam,  and  many  special  industrial  pur])()ses  like  washing 
cloth  and  cleansing  hides. 

For  all  these  ])uriioses  together,  an  ordinary  town  in  the  Unite<l 


140  MAX'S    REI.ATIOX    TO    BODIES   OF   WATER 

State's  requires  from  50  to  150  gallons  of  water  ])vr  day  for  each  ]i(t- 
son.  Usually  this  sui^iily  is  obtained  so  easily,  hy  siiii))ly  tuniiufj;  a 
faucet,  that  pe()])le  do  not  realize  how  iiiqiortant  it  is.  They  feel  the 
importance  of  the  matter,  however,  when  tlicre  comes  a  droup;ht,  as 
occurred  in  New  l^njrland  in  1911,  and  the  lawns  nuist  be  allowed  to 
dry  u]'),  the  takinji  of  baths  is  restricted,  and  some  of  the  factories  have 
to  sluit  down  for  a  few  weeks. 

What  Kind  of  Water  Supply  is  Needed. — The  quality  of  a  water 
su])i)ly  is  even  moi-e  ini])ortant  than  its  (juantity.  For  that  reason 
every  up-to-date  city  employs  skilled  enf]:;ineers  not  only  to  determine 
the  best  source  of  water  and  how  it  shall  be  protected  from  contam- 
ination, but  also  to  construct  purifyinji;  works  if  necessary  and  to  test 
the  water  continuallj^,  to  see  whether  it  contains  any  hannful  iin])uii- 
ties.     The  requisites  of  a  p;ood  water  supply  are  as  follows: 

(1)  Freedom  from  Mud. — Mud  is  a  coni])aratively  common  (nil, 
but  does  little  harm.  The  people  of  St.  Louis,  for  example,  drink 
the  muddy  water  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Now  they  filter  it,  but 
even  before  they  had  their  great  filtration  ])lants,  thej'  found  it  whole- 
some. A  httle  mud  is  harmful  chiefly  because  it  does  not  look  attrac- 
tive, and  it  is  larp;ely  for  this  n^ason  that  cities  build  settling  basins 
where  the  water  stands  still  for  some  hoin*s  and  dro]is  its  load  of  silt. 
In  some  cases,  however,  even  a  prolonged  period  of  quiet  will  not  cause 
the  finest  clay  to  settle,  and  some  of  the  most  wholesome  water  sup- 
plies are  a  little  cloudy. 

(2)  Freedom  from  Taste  and  Smell. — Water  that  has  a  disagi'ee- 
able  taste  or  especially  a  distinct  smell  is  undesirable.  Often,  how- 
ever, what  people  call  a  disagreeable  taste  means  menly  a  taste 
different  from  that  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  A  smell  is  more 
likely  to  be  a  sign  that  something  is  really  wrong.  Yet  neither  taste 
nor  smell  necessarily  indicates  that  the  water  is  unwhok^some,  as 
many  people  in  ))iairie  towns  are  well  aware.  Nevertheless,  since 
both  are  disagi-eeal)le,  and  since  either  may  indicate  that  the  water  is 
bad,  cities  go  to  gi'eat  ex])ense  in  order  to  get  rid  of  them,  either  by 
filtration  or  by  chemical  treat nieiii. 

(3)  Freedom  from  Chcniicdl  I )ti]>urities. — Some  chemical  iin])uri- 
ties  reveal  themselves  by  llicii-  laste  or  smell.  A  laruc  ihiiiiIhm',  how- 
ever, such  as  the  lime  which  causes  hardness,  do  not.  make  the  water 
disagreeable,  while  some — such  as  iron — which  ])roduce.  both  tasteand 
smell,  are  iKMieficial.  Lime  is  l)y  far  the  most  harmful  of  the  com- 
mon chemical  im]iurities  of  water  and  the  hanlest  to  get  rid  of.  When 
hard  water  is  used  in  boilei*s  it  causes  the  deposition  of  a  limy  cake  on 
the  inside  of  the  boiler  and  soon  ruins  it.  In  the  same  way,  in  man's 
body,  it   may  increase  the  susc(>ptibilily  to  rheuniatisni,  goiter,  and 


THE   USE   OF   INLAND  WATERS  141 

other  diseases.  Yet  such  wat(>r  may  be  sparkling  and  clear,  without 
odor,  and  with  the  most  dehghtful  taste. 

(4)  Freedom  from  Bacteria. — This  is  by  far  the  most  important 
quaUty  of  a  water  supply.  Water  that  is  ideal  in  other  respects  may 
contain  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever,  dysentery,  and  other  diseases. 
The  city  of  Niagara  Falls  has  suffered  greatly  from  typhoid  because 
Buffalo  discharges  its  sewage  into  Lake  Erie  and  Niagara  Falls  takes 
its  water  from  the  Niagara  River  wliich  flows  from  that  lake.  Even 
though  the  water  seems  to  have  become  perfectly  clear  and  has  no 
mud,  no  taste,  no  odor,  and  no  chemical  impurities,  the  disease  germs 
of  Buffalo  still  live  and  do  vast  harm.  In  Europe  the  prevalence  of 
typhoid  germs  in  the  water  supply  of  many  of  the  cities  is  one  chief 
reason  why  wine  and  beer  are  used  so  extensively.  In  China,  where 
disease  germs  are  still  more  abundant  in  the  water,  the  people  ahnost 
universally  drink  tea.  They  have  found  by  long  experience  that  the 
best  way  to  get  rid  of  bacteria  is  to  boil  the  water,  a  lesson  which 
people  ought  to  remember  when  obhged  to  use  doubtful  suppUes  of 
water  or  when  typhoid  and  dysentery  are  common. 

How  a  Water  Supply  is  Procured  and  Distributed. — (1)  Primitive 
Methods. — The  shnplest  way  of  getting  a  supply  of  water  is  to  dip 
it  up  by  hand  from  a  stream,  spring,  or  lake.  In  Oriental  countries 
like  Pei-sia,  and  in  tropical  countries  like  India  and  Venezuela,  one 
can  any  day  see  scores  of  women  walldng  gracefully  to  the  stream 
or  the  fountain  with  earthenware  jare  poised  on  their  heads  or  shoul- 
ders. Elsewhere  men  with  plump  goatskin  bag's  on  their  backs  or 
driving  barrel-shaped  little  donkey  carts  bring  water  from  the  nmddy 
river  and  fill  the  big  earthenware  pots  that  stand  in  a  shady  corner  of 
every  courtyard. 

(2)  Ordinary  Wells. — Among  civihzcd  people  and  among  many 
^^•ho  are  only  partly  ci\'iUzed,  wells  are  the  most  common  source  of 
water.  This  is  because  the  soil  and  the  solid  rock  are  everj^vhere 
saturated  with  water  below  a  certain  depth.  The  varj-ing  level  at 
which  permanent  water  is  found  is  called  the  water  table.  The  water 
table  is  only  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  in  swam])S,  l)ut  generally 
several  hundred  feet  in  deserts.  Wherever  a  well  is  sunk  it  nuist  go 
deep  enough  to  penetrate  below  tlu^  lowest  level  to  which  this  table 
falls  in  dry  seasons.  The  chief  difficulty  with  wells  is  to  I'aise  the  wat.(n- 
to  the  surface.  In  many  places  this  is  done  b}'  hand  with  long  rojies. 
In  parts  of  tropical  IMexico  long  fines  of  women  come  to  t  lie  wells  in  the 
cool  of  the  morning  long  before  sunrise  and  wait  their  turn  in  o\\\vv  to 
pull  up  water  from  a  dejith  of  a  hundred  feet  or  more.  Often,  how- 
ever, this  work  is  done  by  horses,  oxen,  or  camels.  In  ISIexico  the 
well  rope  is  sometimes  fastened  to  the  horns  of  an  t)x,  or  to  the  saddle 


142  MAX'.^   HKLA'l'loX   TO   BODIES  OF  WATKIl 

of  a  horse,  where  it  causes  a  p:reat  and  unnecessary  strain  which  soon 
kills  the  animals.  These  ])rijnitive  methods,  however,  are  fast  beinp; 
replaced  by  machinery.  The  sim]ilest  machine  for  drawing;  water  is 
the  hand  pump,  Init  ])umi)s  run  by  animal  power,  by  wind,  and  by 
gasoline  are  also  largely  used.  The  use  of  such  power  pumjis  usually 
leads  to  the  building  of  tanks  or  resei-\'oirs,  and  thus  makes  it  easy 
to  have  running  water  in  the  house  at  all  times.  This  is  a  great  advan- 
tage, for  the  easier  it  is  to  get  water  the  more  likely  people  arc  to  use 
it,  not  only  for  drinking  and  cooking,  but  also  for  bathing,  washing, 
and  fire  protection.  Moreover,  such  a  water  system  is  a  gi'eat  help 
in  insuring  purity. 

(3)  Artesian  and  Driven  Wells. — The  use  of  machinery  has  made 
it  possible  to  drill  wells  of  gi-eat  dc]ith.  Artesian  wells  are  those  in 
which  the  well  jienetrates  to  porous  layers  of  rock  lying  between  im- 
pervious clayey  layers.  The  layers  must  be  tilted  sufiicienth',  so 
that  part  of  the  porous  layer  will  reach  the  surface  at  a  point  higher 
than  the  top  of  the  well.  In  that  case,  the  water  will  flow  out  of  llie 
well  and  even  gush  out,  as  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  where,  if  un- 
hindered, it  spouts  up  170  feet.  One  such  well  at  Lillei*s  in  France  has 
been  flowing  steadily  for  nearly  800  yeare.  Artesian  water  from  gi-eat 
depths  is  always  warm.  A  well  2050  feet  deep  at  Charleston,  South 
CaroUna,  for  example,  has  a  temperature  of  87°  F. 

Artesian  wells  are  especially  important  in  dry  regions  like  the 
Sahara  Desert,  where  they  supi^ort  many  oases.  The  French  have 
there  tapped  deep  sources  of  water  derived  from  rain  that  falls  many 
hundred  miles  away.  Driven  wells,  w^hich  penetrate  deep  into  the 
ground  but  do  not  strike  water  that  rises,  are  also  highly  important 
in  dry  regions,  since  they  give  a  water  supply  which  does  not  diy  up. 
They  are  very  expensive  to  operate,  however,  since  it  costs  a  good  deal 
to  ]:)ump  water  from  such  gi-eat  depths  by  means  of  gasoline  or  elec- 
tricity. In  the  southwestern  United  States  such  wells  are  common, 
but  they  are  much  more  feasible  on  cattle  ranches,  where  only  a  small 
sui)ply  of  water  is  needed,  than  on  irrigated  farms  where  a  large  su])])ly 
is  required.  ]\Ioreover,  the  water  from  such  w{>lls  is  apt  to  contain 
a  large  percentage  of  dissolved  minerals,  and  thus  is  good  neither  for 
men  nor  for  plants. 

City  Water  Systems. — The  most  complicated  methods  of  ol)taining 
and  distril)Uliiig  water  are  employed  in  gi'cat  cities.  No  matter  what 
may  be  the  source  of  the  water,  a  city  nuist  have  an  extensive  system 
of  large  water  pipes  or  mains,  and  of  minor  pipes  ruuniiig  to  every 
street  and  house.  Filtration  plants  are  also  needed  in  many  cases, 
and  a  well-developed  sewage  system  is  always  planned  in  connection 
with  the  water  system  in  every  ui)-to-date  city.     Each  city  ought  also 


THE   USE   OF   INLAND   WATERS  143 

to  have  a  reservoir  sufficiently  large  and  located  high  enough  so  that 
in  case  of  sudden  demands  such  as  fires,  or  in  case  the  mains  are 
broken,  there  will  be  enough  water  for  an  emergency. 

The  sources  of  city  water  are  very  various.  Some  cities  like 
Pittsburgh  pump  water  out  of  rivers  and  have  to  spend  much  money 
in  purifying  the  water  and  in  raising  it  high  enough  to  supply  the  hilly 
parts  of  town.  Others,  like  Chicago,  get  water  from  lakes  close  at 
hand,  and  have  the  same  problem  of  purification  and  pumping,  al- 
though the  cost  of  pumping  is  slight  because  the  city  lies  so  close  to 
lake  level.  In  other  cases  hke  New  York,  the  city  spends  an  enor- 
mous smn  in  building  great  reservoirs  far  away  among  the  hills. 
The  Ashokan  Reservoir  lies  among  the  Catskill  IVIountams  85  miles 
from  New  York,  and  its  water  is  brought  to  the  city  by  a  gi-eat  aque- 
duct which  goes  under  the  Hudson  River  in  a  tunnel  of  great  depth. 
Although  the  first  cost  of  such  a  reservoir  and  aqueduct  is  enormous, 
the  later  cost  is  slight.  Little  expense  is  needed  for  maintenance, 
piu'ification  is  unnecessary,  since  the  reser\^oir  is  protected  from  con- 
tamination, and  the  water  flows  by  gravity  without  being  pumped. 
Some  of  New  York's  skj^-scrapers,  however,  are  so  high  that  for  a  long 
time  they  had  to  maintain  their  own  pmuping  plants  in  order  to  raise 
the  water  to  the  upper  stories.  Los  Angeles,  being  located  in  a  region 
w'here  there  is  a  long  dry  season,  has  to  bring  its  water  much  farther 
than  New  York.  It  taps  the  Owens  River  on  the  east  side  of  the  Si- 
erras, and  brings  the  water  through  an  aqueduct  about  250  miles 
long,  crossing  some  of  the  mountains  in  a  tunnel. 

Cities  also  get  water  from  artesian  and  driven  wells.  Although 
London's  supply  comes  chiefly  from  the  rivers  Thames  and  Lea,  it 
likewise  has  a  huge  system  of  artesian  wells  driven  into  the  underlying 
chalk.  So  numerous  are  these  wells  and  so  great  the  demand  of 
London  for  water  that  the  water  table  has  been  permanently  lowered 
over  a  large  area.  Before  Brooklyn  shared  New  York's  water  supply 
it  had  a  similar  experience  on  a  smaller  scale. 

Perhaps  the  most  unusual  method  of  getting  a  water  supply  is 
that  of  Baku  and  Aden.  Both  cities  are  located  in  regions  so  dry 
that  sufficient  fresh  water  cannot  be  secured.  Hence  the  only  re- 
coui-se  is  to  piece  out  the  meager  supply  with  distilled  sea  water.  Tliis 
is  inexpensive  at  Baku  because  of  the  abundance  of  oil,  but  at  Aden, 
where  coal  must  be  brought  from  a  distance,  the  water  suppl}'  is 
unusually  costly. 

Water  as  a  Source  of  Power. — Water  furnishes  the  cheapest 
kintl  of  ])()\\('r.  In  order  easily  to  use  this  power  the  water  must 
flow  regularly  at  all  s(>asons  and  must  descend  rapidly  to  provide  a 
good  "head."'     Ileiice  three  coiulitions  are  favorable  to  the  develop- 


144  MANS  RELATION  TO   BODIES  OF  WATER 

mcnt  of  water  powor:  Cl)  ru^fxcd  rclii'f,  (2)  lakes  or  other  roser- 
voii-s,  aiul  (3)  nil  alHindant  rainfall  well  distributed  throughout  the 
year. 

(1)  IIow  Ru(j(]C(l  Ueliif  Favors  the  f'.sr  of  Water  Power. — In  a 
nigfjjed  eouiitiy  the  streams  descend  rajndly,  and  thus  furnish  a 
])r()])ci'  head  of  water.  IIow  important  this  is  may  l>c  illustrated  by 
(•omi)arin^  the  Mississi])])i  Kiver  in  its  u])])er  and  lower  ])ortions. 
The  available  ]M)wer  from  the  main  stream  of  the  river  during  its 
course  of  nearly  a  thousand  miles  in  the  gi-eat  central  ])lain,  \\here  it 
descends  only  five  inches  pvr  mile,  is  only  147,000  hors(>-power.  A 
smaller  amount  of  water  flowing  a  similar  distance  in  the  ii})per  trib- 
utaries in  regions  of  rugged  relief  where  it  descends  rapidly,  is  cap- 
able of  furnishing  0,430,000  liorse-])()wer,  or  about  forty-three  times 
as  mucli  as  in  the  plain. 

(2)  How  Lakes  Favor  the  Use  of  Water  Poxcer. — Lakes  are  also 
a  great  hel]D  in  the  development  of  water  power.  They  serve  as 
resen-oii-s  so  that  the  volume  of  the  rivers  which  flow  from  them 
varies  relatively  little  from  season  to  season.  For  example,  the 
Niagara  River,  coming  from  the  huge  resen-oirs  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
carries  onh'  one-third  more  water  at  its  highest  than  at  its  lowest 
level.  The  Potom;ic,  wit  h  no  lakes  whatever,  is  sometimes  250  times 
as  large  in  flood  as  at  low  water.  In  July,  1911,  a  drought  caused  the 
lakeless  Catawba  Kiver  in  the  Carolinas  to  become  so  low  that  152 
cotton  mills  shut  down  foi'  lack  of  i)owei',  and  70,000  operatives  were 
thrown  out  of  work.  Such  variations  do  so  much  harm  that  power 
companies  have  sjient  millions  of  dollai's  in  creating  artificial  lakes 
by  means  of  dams.  This  has  been  done  on  many  small  ri\ers,  the 
Connecticut  and  its  tributaries  being  notal)le  examples. 

Th(!  ])resence  of  abundant  vegetation  has  somewhat  tlu^  same 
effect  as  lakes  in  steadying  the  volume  of  rivei-s.  AA'here  the  slopes 
are  well  covered  with  vegetation,  the  rain  does  not  run  off  all  at  once, 
but  is  caught  in  the  rootlets  and  soil  and  seeps  out  slowl}'  in  springs. 
This  is  one  of  the  chief  arguments  for  forest  consei'\'ation. 

(3)  How  Abundant  Rainfall  Favors  the  Use  of  Water  Power. — 
The  value  of  abundant  and  regular  rainfall  in  promoting  the  use  of 
water  power  may  be  judged  from  a  comparison  of  Wisconsin  and 
Nevada.  Although  Wisconsin  is  only  half  as  large  as  Nevada  and  is 
much  less  rugged,  its  water  power  ])ossibilities  are  several  hundred 
times  as  great  Ixjcause  of  its  heavier  rainfall.  In  I  he  noii  lui  n  Pacific 
drainage  area  of  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Idaho  the  abundant  rains 
combine  with  favorable  relief  to  cause  that  region  to  be  ca]xible  of 
furnishing  two-fifths  of  the  water  power  of  the  United  States.  Al- 
though the  wat(>r  power  in  that  region  is  not  yet  gi'catly  developed, 


THE   USE  OF  INLAND   WATERS 


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MANS    liKLATIUxX    To    iU»l)li;s   oi"    WATER 


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THE  USE  OF  INLAND  WATERS  147 

it  may  some  da^^  fiirnisli  nearly  15,000,000  horse  power,  that  is,  more 
than  is  obtained  from  the  150, 000, 000  tons  of  coal  l)urned  each  year 
by  the  railroads.  This,  however,  would  recjuire  a  dam  every  few 
miles,  that  is,  at  every  place  where  a  head  of  water  could  be  secured. 
The  presence  of  cheap  power  is  sure  some  day  to  cause  that  region  to 
become  prominent  in  manufacturing. 

How  Seasonal  Variations  Hinder  the  Use  of  Water  Power. — The 
chief  disadvantage  of  the  northwestern  water  power  is  that,  although 
the  rains  fall  heavily  part  of  the  year,  they  diminish  greatly  in  sum- 
mer. In  the  United  States  the  irregularitj^  of  the  rains  reaches  a 
maximimi  in  the  Southwest.  The  winter  rains  on  many  of  the 
mountain  ranges  of  Utah,  Arizona,  and  southern  California  would 
furnish  abundant  water  power,  but  it  does  not  pay  to  ])uild  ])ower 
plants  because  they  would  have  to  be  idle  during  the  long  dry  sum- 
mer. Moreover,  they  might  be  ruined  l)}^  the  floods  which  are  char- 
acteristic of  such  regions,  where  the  bare  slopes  of  the  mountains  have 
httle  vegetation  to  hold  back  the  water  in  winter.  Some  of  these 
mountains,  however,  are  so  high  that  much  of  their  precipitation 
takes  the  form  of  snow.  If  this  melts  slowly  it  acts  like  a  reservoir, 
and  holds  back  the  watcn-  until  the  warm  dry  season  when  it  is  needed. 
Sometimes  it  melts  rapidly  and  forms  l)ad  floods.  Some  of  the  worst 
floods  in  regions  like  New  York  and  Pennyslvania  are  due  to  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snow  which  represents  the  accumulated  rainfall  of  the 
winter. 

Why  Glaciated  Regions  have  Abundant  Water  Power. — (1)  Falls 
and  Rapids. — The  parts  of  tlu^  world  which  possess  the  most  favor- 
al)le  combination  of  rugged  relief,  many  laki's,  and  ainmdant  rainfall 
have  all  been  glaciated.  This  is  because  during  the  cold,  stormy 
glacial  period  in  the  earth's  history,  great  glaciers  sprcnid  out  from 
cool,  well-watered  elevated  regions.  As  they  movcMl  slowly  forward 
they  changed  the  topograph}^,  turning  rivei-s  out  of  their  courses  so 
that  they  formed  numerous  iii\\>  and  ra])ids,  and  causing  many  great 
hollows  which  are  now  filled  by  numerous  lakes.  Niagara  Falls, 
the  finest  sourc(^  of  water  power  in  the  world,  canu^  into  existence 
because  ice  closed  the  ancient  outlet  of  Lake  Erie.  The  lake  over- 
flowed along  a  new  course,  which  caused  it  to  tumble  ov(m-  a  clifT. 
Hence  to-day  Niagara  Falls  furnish  light  and  power  to  multitudes  of 
people.  Tiiey  might  furnish  tiuve  million  horse-power,  or  nearly  a 
tenth  of  all  that  is  used  in  the  United  States,  if  the  governments  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  had  not  imposed  restrictions  in  order 
to  presen-e  the  wonderful  natural  beaut v  of  the  tremendous  water- 
fall. 

In   New   England,  Wisconsin,   and   similar  regions  the  ancient 


148  MANS   RELATION   TO   BODIES   OF   WATER 

glaciere  did  not  caiisp  such  strikinp;  falls  as  at  Niagara,  hut  gave  rise 
to  many  smaller  ones,  and  to  freciuent  rapids  which  can  easily  be 
dannned.  This  has  stinmlated  the  gi'owth  of  such  industrial  cities 
as  Manchester,  Nashua,  Lowell,  and  L;i\\v(>nc('  on  the  .Mei-rimac 
River,  Holyoke,  Simngfield,  and  Ihirttdrd  on  the  Connecticut,  and 
a  string  of  small  cities  on  the  lower  I"o\  liiver  in  Wisconsin  (see 
Fig.  42.) 

In  mountainous  regions  the  ancient  glaciers  deepened  the  valleya 
and  steepened  their  walls  so  that  tributary'  streams  often  enter  the 
main  valley  in  a  series  of  cascades  which  can  readily  be  utilized  for 
power.  In  Switzerland  and  Norway,  wliere  glaciers  persisted  in 
valleys  for  thousands  of  ycare  after  the  continental  glacier  had  re- 
treated, such  falls  are  numerous,  and  are  one  reason  for  tlu>  \nv- 
eminence  of  those  countries  in  the  use  of  w^ater  power. 

(2)  Glacial  Lakes. — Over  90  per  cent  of  all  the  lakes  in  the  world 
are  due  to  glaciation.  In  some  cases,  such  as  the  Great  Lakes,  the 
Finger  Lakes  of  Central  New  York,  and  the  famous  lakes  at  the 
foot  of  the  Alps  in  northern  Italy,  the  glaciei-s  dug  out  enor- 
mous hollows  which  were  filled  by  water  when  the  ice  melted.  In 
other  cases,  such  as  hundreds  of  lakes  in  New  England,  Wisconsin, 
Canada,  and  Russia,  the  ice  laid  down  great  masses  of  rock  and  soil 
called  moraines,  and  these  caused  lakes  by  acting  as  dams.  AMierever 
such  lake  regions  have  sufficient  relief  they  afford  all  the  conditions 
needed  for  the  development  of  abundant  water  power.  The  glacial 
lakes,  falls,  and  rapids  of  New  England,  for  example,  are  one  of  the 
chief  reasons  why  New  England  early  developed  its  manufacturing 
industries  and  is  still  able  to  maintain  its  position  although  it 
has  neither  coal  nor  raw  matcnials. 

The  Value  of  Water  Power  in  Switzerland. — In  the  use  of  water 
power  Switzerland  is  even  farther  advanced  than  New  England. 
To-day  the  power  used  by  practically  all  the  street  railways  and  by 
the  bulk  of  the  industrial  enterprises  in  that  countiy  comes  from 
waterfalls.  The  railways,  too,  arc  giving  up  coal  and  using  hydro- 
electric power,  that  is,  power  derived  from  electricity  generated  by 
the  streams  that  pour  down  from  the  mountains.  Tlie  loom  of  the 
lace-maker  and  the  maehine  of  the  watchmaker  in  the  home  are  also 
liein^j;  driven  by  hydro-electric  energy.  Such  energy  even  goes  into 
the  barn  and  house  of  the  peasant.  Thus  grain  is  threshed,  butter 
is  churned,  water  is  pumped,  food  for  cattle  is  ])rcpared,  and  the 
farmer  is  relieved  of  his  most  arduous  labor.  Much  of  this  develojv 
ment  of  water  power  is  due  to  the  wise  policy  of  govcrmnent  regula- 
tion and  the  payment  of  royalties  to  the  state  by  users  of  the 
water. 


THE   USE   OF   INLAND   WATERS  149 

The  Growth  of  the  Use  of  Water  Power. — In  view  of  the  great 
demand  for  power  it  seems  strange  that  only  about  one-sixth  of  the 
possible^  water-power  of  this  country  has  ])een  developed.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  many  of  the  best  water-power  sites  have 
been  unavailable  because  located  in  mountainous  ref2;ions  wlun-e  the 
rough  ground  affords  little  opportunity  for  factories  and  houses,  and 
where  transportation  is  expensive.  At  last,  however,  hydro-electric 
methods  of  transmitting  power  have  so  developed  that  not  only  is  a 
400-mile  line  in  operation  in  southern  California,  but  engineers  are 
considering  the  construction  of  a  700-mile  line  in  Africa  from  the 
Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambesi  to  the  mines  at  Johannesburg. 

No  water  power  site  can  hope  to  rival  Niagara.  The  size  of  the 
river,  the  sudden  fall  from  a  great  height,  the  regularity  of  the  rain- 
fall, and  the  steadiness  of  the  river  because  of  the  gi-eat  reservoirs  back 
of  it  are  all  advantages  of  the  highest  order.  In  addition  to  this  the 
falls  are  located  in  a  comparatively  level  region  where  transportation 
is  easy  and  cheap,  and  where  there  is  plenty  of  room  to  establish 
factories  and  build  houses.  And  finally,  the  falls  are  in  a  district 
where  the  population  is  dense,  energetic,  and  progressive,  and  which 
even  without  water  power  would  be  one  of  the  world's  great  manu- 
facturing regions. 

The  nearest  rivals  of  Niagara  are  both  called  the  Victoria  Falls. 
One,  on  the  Zambesi,  is  over  twice  as  high  as  Niagara  and  carries  an 
enormous  volume  of  water.  The  other,  on  the  River  Iquassu  on  the 
boundary  between  Brazil  and  Argentina,  and  only  16  miles  from 
Paraguay,  is  215  feet  high  and  has  a  series  of  twenty  falls  separated 
by  islands  just  as  Goat  Island  separates  the  American  and  Canadian 
Falls  at  Niagara.  Neither  of  the  two  Victoria  Falls  has  yet  been 
used  for  water  power  Ix'cause  both  are  located  in  an  unfavorable 
climate  far  from  manufacturing  centers, 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Discuss  the  relation  of  the  following  places  to  inland  waterways:  Pitts- 
burg, Manchester  (N.  H.),  Mainz,  Belgrade,  Assouan,  Port  Said,  Minneapolis, 
Ashokan.  What  bodies  of  water  have  helped  to  make  these  places  important? 
To  what  uses  is  the  water  put  in  each  case? 

2.  Measure  the  appro.ximate  length  of  the  longest  river  in  each  of  the  follow- 
ing regions:  tlie  United  States,  Russia,  England,  France,  Germany,  and  New 
York  State.  Draw  a  grai)h  reiir&senting  the  relative  lengths  of  these  rivers.  Also 
show  graphically  the  total  population  of  all  the  cities  of  over  100, 000  along  each 
river,  using  the  table  of  cities  in  the  World  Almanac,  or  an  elementary  geography. 

3.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  Atlantic  States  locate  the  following  places: 
Manchester,  X.  II.,  Lawrence,  Fall  River,  Springfield,  Waterbur>-,  Trenton,  Rich- 
mond, Raleigh,  Columbia,  Augusta,  and  draw  the  rivers  on  w  liu  li  t  licy  are  located. 


150 


MAN'S    IIELATIUN    TO    UUUIES   OF    WATlJi 


Find  out  what  coininon  characteristics  those  places  have,  (a)  in  chief  occupations; 
{b)  in  the  use  of  inland  waters;  which  ones  ap])ear  in  Fig.  44?  Interpret  Fig. 
44,  by  showing  how  far  the  location  of  cotton  factories  depends  on  iiilaiKJ  waters 
and  how  far  on  other  geograi)hical  conditions. 

Insert  on  your  map  the  cities  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  already  located. 
Find  out  how  far  these  cities  and  the  factory  cities  arc  benefited  bj'  the  use  of 
inland  waters  for  navigation.     Ciive  reasons  why  Xew  England  rivers  are  more  or 


I  Establishment 
".More  tlian  10  Establisli- 

IllL'IltS 


Fiu.  11.— Cotton  Mills  in  the  United  State: 


less  useful  for  cither  power  or  navigation  than  are  the  rivers  of  the  Carolinas  and 
deorgia. 

1.  Try  in  liii^l  nut  from  :i  rdicl'  map  and  a  rainfall  map  what  are  the  prospects 
of  gi'tting  ciMiujzh  water  powiT  to  run  factories  in  New  Zealand.  Find  out  other 
condition.^  which  may  cause  industry  to  develop. 

5.  "Nortli  ll.ily  has  undergone  an  industrial  revolutimi  during  the  last  cen- 
tury." Fiiiil  oul  to  wlial  extent  this  development  is  due  l<>  I  lie  jihy.sical  geography 
pf  the  region. 


THE   USE   OF   INLAND   WATERS  151 

6.  Look  up  the  U.  S.  G.  S.  map  of  Mount  Shasta  and  explain  why  the  southern 
edge  of  the  mountain  is  so  much  more  cut  uj)  tiian  its  northeastern  part. 

7.  Use  the  following  maps:  (.1)  relief  map  of  the  world;  (B)  rainfall  map 
(Fig.  81);  (C)  distribution  of  population  (Fig.  37).  From  a  comparison  of  these 
three  make  lists  of  the  four  regions  where  you  think  that  there  are  the  greatest 
possibilities  of  investment  in  each  of  the  following  kinds  of  enterprises:  (a)  the 
development  of  water  power  for  manufacturing;  (h)  the  construction  or  improve- 
ment of  inland  waterways  for  navigation;  (c)  the  utilization  of  existing  inland 
waterways  for  commerce.     Justify  your  choice  of  regions. 


PART  V 
MAN'S  RELATION  TO  SOIL  AND  MINERALS 


CHAPTER  VII 
SOIL  AND  THE  FARMER 

The  Relation  between  Soil  and  Plant  Food. — The  poets  some- 
times speak  of  tlie  earth  as  the  mother  of  all  things.  They  mean 
that  practically  all  living  things  depend  upon  the  soil  for  existence, 
the  plants  directly,  and  animals  and  man  indirectly.  To  suppose, 
however,  that  the  soil  supphcs  the  main  food  of  plants  is  a  mistake. 
From  93  to  95  per  cent  of  the  dry  weight  of  plants  consists  of  carbon, 
oxygen,  and  hydrogen  derived  from  water  or  from  the  carbon  dioxide^ 
of  the  air.  The  water  comes  to  the  plants  through  the  soil,  but  its 
amount  depends  primarily  upon  climate  and  relief.  The  relative 
abundance  of  water  has  more  effect  upon  the  distribution  and  char- 
acter of  life  than  has  any  other  factor  except  temperature.  The 
carbon  dioxide  of  the  air,  on  the  contrary,  although  as  essential  as 
water,  has  little  effect  upon  the  distribution  of  life  or  upon  valua- 
tions in  character  from  place  to  place,  because  the  supply  of  air 
is  sufficient  practically  everywhere,  and  the  percentage  of  carbon 
dioxide  varices  very  little  except  in  a  few  extreme  cases.  If  water  is 
abundant,  plants  can  get  carbon  from  the  air  anywhere,  and  some 
species  can  grow  in  almost  any  soil. 

The  nitrogen  which  forms  an  appreciable  percentage  of  all  plants 
also  comes  originally  from  the  air.  Only  certain  nitrogen-fixing  bac- 
teria, however,  are  positively  known  to  take  nitrogen  directly  from  that 
source.  They  thrive  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants  such  as  clover. 
All  other  plants  obtain  nitrog(>n  from  the  soil,  but  even  this  comes 
chiefly  from  dcM-aycd  organic  matter.  In  addition  to  tiiis  the  soil 
suppliers  from  1  to  4  per  cent  of  the  w(>lght  of  the  average  plant  in  th(^ 
form  of  mineral  matter  or  ash.  This  small  percentage  is  absohitely 
essential.  In  a  certain  way  it  bears  to  the  main  elements  a  relation 
analogous  to  that  of  salts,  acids,  and  vitamines  to  the  carl)ohydrates, 
fats,  and  protcids  which  form  most  of  the  food  of  man.      It  should 

153 


151  MAX'S    RELATION   TO   POIL  AND    MTXF.RALS 

1)(^  nolod  thai  tlio  A-arioiis  clicniical  olomonts  derived  from  soil,  air, 
and  water  ave  not  cxactlx-  jjlaiil  foods  when  fiist  al)sorl)('d  l)y  the 
jiiaiits.  l^oforo  they  can  iiouiisli  llic  ])laiit  tlicy  must  ])ass  throufili 
the  cldiiiopliyl  cells  and  lie  elian.i;ed  into  starch,  SU^ar,  proteids,  fats, 
and  other  substances  like  those  which  nourish  animals. 

The  soil  also  sei'ves  as  a  base  or  foundation  upon  which  the  ])lants 
can  <irow  and  in  which  they  can  spread  their  roots.  Thus  the  func- 
tions of  the  soil  may  he  sununed  up  as  follows:  (1)  to  act  as  a  i)hysical 
support  of  ve<i(>tation,  (2)  to  serve  as  a  medium  for  storinjj;  wat(M-  and 
bringinji-  it  in  contact  with  tlie  roots,  and  (3)  to  supply  a  small  but 
essential  percentaji;e  of  the  materials  which  are  converted  into  plant 
food  by  means  of  lifiht.  This  last  fact  makes  the  soil  a  gicat 
problem  and  inxoK'es  an  ex])ense  of  millions  of  dollars  each  year. 
Althoujih  water  and  cai'bon  dioxide  supj)ly  most  of  tiie  bulk  of 
plants  there  is  no  danjier  of  exhausting;  the  su))i)ly.  'Hie  necessary 
chemicals  of  the  soil,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  rapidly  exhausted. 
Each  year  we  put  ])ack  only  part  of  the  fertilizinp;  elenu^nts  that  we 
take  away,  so  that  year  by  year  the  soil  ])ecomes  less  fei'tile  and  [hv 
earth  poorer.  Some  day  we  shall  realize  that  among  the  things  that 
man  wastes  or  destroys  none  is  nior(>  ini]:)ortant  than  the  connnon 
soil  beneath  our  feet. 

How  Soil  is  Formed. — (a)  Mechanical  Age7its. — All  soil  is  dcriv(^d 
fi'om  rocks.  The  fii'st  process  is  the  breaking  of  the  rock  into  frag- 
ments by  mechanical  agencies.  (1)  ^Vlu>n  rocks  are  heated  by  the 
sun  and  cooled  by  the  wind  and  lain,  they  alternately  expand  and 
contract.  This  causes  them  to  crack  like  a  piece  of  glass  in  hot  water, 
although  not  so  violently.  The  S})hinx  in  Kgyi)t  has  ])vcu  cliii)]H>d 
ill  this  way.  (2)  The  rocks  are  also  brokiMi  into  fi-agiiien(s  l)y  move- 
ments due  to  the  earth's  contraction.  The  largest  of  these  move- 
ments arc  earthciuakes.  Still  othei-  cracks  are  formed  becaus(>  the 
rocks  have  contract(Ml  wiiile  cooling  and  hence  have  sj)lit  a  little  and 
then  settled  downwai'd.  I'A'en  where  th(>  rocks  ajipeai'  solid  Iheir 
upper  parts  arc  broken  liy  innumerable  cracks.  Into  cracks  foinied 
in  any  of  these  ways  rain  water  ])ercolates  sooner  or  latei'.  \i  it 
freezes,  it  expands  and  thus  ])ushes  open  the  cracks  .a  liny  bit  and 
forms  new  ones.  When  it  iiiells,  I  he  \\;ilei-  settles  inld  the  enlarged 
(,,)cniiiLis.  'i'lieii  il'  it  freezes  again,  they  are  enlarged  still  more,  (o) 
\\  he|-e  s!ii;ii!  p;i  it  ides  of  rock  lie  on  t  he  Si  1  if:  ice  11  Hilling  water,  W;i\'es, 
;iiid  winds  .-dl  iiio\c  llieiii  and  thus  grind  tlieiii  still  liner.  At  \\\c. 
same  time  the  removal  of  the  soil  by  these  agencies  eximscs  new  rock. 
In  ])laces  like  ( 'jijie  Cod,  the  wind  sometimes  carries  the  loose  sand 
along  with  such  \iol(iice  that  windows  are  etched  so  that  people 
cannot  see  through  tiieni. 


SOIL  AND  THE  FARMER  155 

(h)  Chemical  Agents. — The  cracks  formed  by  mechanical  agents 
make  it  easy  for  chemical  agencies  to  convert  the  rock  into  soil. 
( 1 )  The  water  that  percolates  into  the  ground  is  sure  to  contain 
impurities.  From  the  air  it  gathers  some  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
given  off  by  animals  when  they  breathe.  On  the  surface  of  the 
ground  it  seeps  among  decaying  leaves,  roots  and  other  organic 
matter,  and  there  dissolves  hmnic  acid,  ammonia,  and  other  chem- 
icals. Thus  the  water  becomes  a  weak  chemical  solution,  usually 
acid,  and  is  able  to  dissolve  some  minerals  and  weaken  the  rest. 

(2)  The  air  itself,  especially  when  moist,  produces  similar  results. 
The  water,  oxygen,  carbonic  acid  gas,  ammonia,  and  other  chemicals 
which  the  air  contains  in  minute  quantities  cause  decay.  The  proc- 
ess is  like  the  rusting  or  oxidizing  of  iron,  which  sometimes  goes  on  so 
rapidly  that  a  bright  blade  may  become  red  when  left  out  of  doors 
overnight.  Oxidation  is  the  commonest  method  by  which  rocks  are 
converted  into  soil.  The  red,  yellow,  or  Ijrown  coating  on  the  out- 
side of  rocks  is  the  result  of  oxidation. 

(c)  Organic  Agents. — Anything  which  helps  to  expose  bits  of 
rock  to  the  attack  of  air  or  water  helps  to  make  soil.  (1)  A  lichen 
helps  when  it  attaches  itself  to  the  side  of  a  bare,  solid  rock.  (2) 
The  higher  plants  help  when  they  send  rootlets  into  cracks.  As  the 
roots  grow  the  cracks  are  forced  open.  (2)  Animals  such  as  wood- 
chucks  and  prairie  dogs  expose  bits  of  rocks  to  the  air  when  they 
dig  their  bmTOws.  (3)  The  patient  ants  in  the  same  way  bring  up 
innumerable  tiny  bits  of  rock  and  place  them  within  reach  of  sun  and 
rain.  (4)  Angle  worms  get  their  food  by  eating  the  fine  soil.  In  the 
process  of  digestion  the}-  take  out  the  decaying  organic  matter,  while 
the  soil  passes  through  them  and  is  subjected  to  chemical  action. 

If  all  of  the  soil  of  a  given  region  were  swept  into  the  ocean  the 
mechanical,  chemical,  and  organic  processes  here  described  would 
in  time  break  up  the  exposed  I'ocks  and  form  a  new  cover  of  soil,  but 
it  would  take  hundreds  of  thousands  of  yeai's. 

Kinds  of  Soil. — (1)  Gravelly  Soils. — For  most  kinds  of  plants  the 
gravelly  soils  formed  ])y  swiftly  running  water  are  generally  too 
coarse.  They  allow  air  and  water  to  penetrate  freely  to  the  I'oots, 
but  do  not  retain  the  water,  and  the  crops  are  ai)t  to  dry  U]). 
Moreover,  although  the  roots  can  find  their  way  easily  among  the 
particles,  the  soil  does  not  furnish  solul)le  chemicals  in  sufficient 
quantities.  Gravelly  soil  is  also  hard  to  plow  and  cultivate  because 
of  the  stones.  When  a  flood  in  the  Miami  River  spread  four  or  five 
inches  of  gravel  over  some  of  the  farms  in  Oliio  the  fai-mei-s  were 
completely  discouraged  at  first.  Then  tlu'\-  went  to  work  with  tip 
carts  and  laboriously  clearetl  off  the  gravel  acre  by  acre. 


150  MANS    1!];L.\'11()N    'lO    S()II>   AND    MINllKAI^S 

(2)  Sandy  Soils. — Sand,  which  usually  consisls  largely  of  quartz 
grains,  has  similar  disadvant aires.  It  is,  indeed,  easy  to  plow  and 
cultivate,  hut  it  I'urnishcs  httlc  n(iuiishin«:  niatei-ial  I'oi'  plants,  and 
the  water  luiis  through  it  (iuiekl>'.  In  the  sandy  "pine  harrens  " 
of  ("arohna,  (leoi-iiia,  ;ui(l  I'loi'ida  the  water  escapes  so  fast  th;it  only 
a  few  jrra.ssos  can  grow,  and  1  he  enunt  ry  is  almost  a  deseii .  hi  !■  lorida 
the  oranjTc  frrower  must  each  year  give  his  gi-oves  tons  and  tons  of 
fertilizer,  because  the  sand  in  which  the  orange  trees  grow  contains 
such  small  supplies  of  the  essential  chemicals. 

(3)  Clai/cy  Soils. — Clay  has  the  i)])i)osite  faults  from  sand  and 
gravel.  .Mthough  it  contains  a  fair  supply  of  the  essential  chemicals 
in  i-elati\-el\-  avail.ahle  form  it  is  SO sticky  and  compact  thai  plowing  is 
(lillicult.  Iacii  the  strong(>st  plants  can  bai'ely  send  their  I'oots  into 
it,  antl  the  well-digger  dreads  "haid  pan,"  as  he  calls  a  layer  of  clay, 
almost  as  much  as  solid  rock.  In  (  hinese  Turkestan  certain  sticams 
that  are  used  for  irrigation  bring  down  large  (pi.-intities  of  ela\-  ;md 
spread  it  on  the  fields  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  in  a  single 
season.  When  the  clay  dries  it  forms  a  solid  cake  so  hard  that  it 
must  be  left  two  or  three  years  before  it  can  be  cultivated. 

(4)  Loamy  Soils. — Many  soils  consist  of  hxiin,  a  mixtm-e  of  sand 
and  clay.  The  best  loam  also  contains  humus,  ov  (Un-ayed  vegetable^ 
matter.  Peat  and  coal  were  originally  pure  hunuis.  Since  hunuis 
consists  largely  of  carbon  it  gives  a  dark  or  even  black  color  to  the 
soil.  Although  hunuis  is  of  great  value  as  a  fertilizer,  plants  do  not 
flourish  in  it  alone.  Thus  neith(n-  j)ure  sand,  pure  clay,  nor  pure 
hunuis  is  good  for  agriculture.  What  the  farmer  most  desires  is  a 
rich  loamy  mixture  of  the  three  which  has  the  good  qualities  of  each. 

Poor  Soil  and  Poverty  Compared  with  Rich  Soil  and  Prosperity. — 
Most  parts  of  (leorgia  and  Alabama  consist  of  a  coastal  plain  which 
has  been  worn  down  somewhat,  so  that  it  now  forms  belts  of  varying 
soil  and  topography.  The  outermost  l)elt,  Ijoideiing  the  coastal 
swamps,  has  a  poor  sandy  soil.  Hence  much  of  it  is  still  unculti- 
vated and  is  co\-ered  with  ])ine  foi'ests,  so  that  it  is  known  as  \hc 
"  timber  belt."  Kxcej)!  where  large  (|uaiitities  of  fei1iliz(M-  ar(>  used 
the  farmers  of  the  tinibei-  belt  are  poor  and  backward.  The  soil 
yields  such  scanty  returns  that  the  pdpulal  icni  is  si)ai-se;  schools 
and  eliurehes  are  rare;  and  the  teachers  and  ministers  very  jioorly 
l)aid;  trails  often  take  the  place  of  loads;  .and  few  of  the  i-oads  are 
improved;  physicians  aic  so  few  ami  I'ar  between  that  sick  people 
often  die  before  one  can  l)e  secured;  and  most  of  the  people  know 
little  and  care  less  about  what  is  going  on  elsew  her(\ 

Inland  from  the  timber  belt  lies  the  "  black  belt,"  so  called  because 
of  the  rich,  deej),  black  loam.      l'!verywhen>  the  fertile  soil  is  so  well 


SOIL  AND   THE   FARMER  157 

adapted  to  cotton  raising,  that  this  region  is  also  known  as  the  "  cot- 
ton belt."  The  land  owners  are  very  prosperous  and  the  poijiilation 
dense.  Formerly,  the  rich  soil  made  slave  labor  especially  profitable, 
and  the  number  of  colored  people  even  now  is  so  large  that  people 
sometimes  mistakenly  suppose  that  their  presence  is  the  reason  for 
the  name  "black  belt."  Some  of  the  most  prosperous  cities,  such  as 
Selma  and  Montgomer}-,  are  located  in  this  region,  and  the  g(>neral 
conditions  of  education  and  culture  are  unusually  high.  From  some  of 
the  counties  blessed  with  this  fertile  soil  the  proportion  of  young  people 
who  go  to  college  is  remarkable,  and  naturally  manj^  of  them  become 
the  leading  men  of  the  State.  Thus  while  sandy  soil  leads  to  poverty 
and  ignorance,  a  rich  soil  opens  the  way  to  comfort  and  opportunity. 

Why  Transported  Soils  are  Generally  more  Fertile  than  Residual 
Soils. — The  character  of  a  soil  depends  partly  on  the  kind  of  rock  from 
which  its  various  parts  were  originally  derived.  Soils  that  have  not 
been  moved  from  their  place  of  origin  are  called  residual,  because  they 
reside,  as  it  were,  where  they  were  first  formed.  Residual  soils  derived 
from  quartz-bearing  rocks  like  granite  are  apt  to  be  so  sandy  and  poor 
that  the  farmers  can  scarcely  make  a  living.  The  residual  soil  derived 
from  dark  heav;^^  lav^as  or  from  limestone,  on  the  other  hand,  is  gen- 
erally rich  in  essential  chemicals,  but  often  has  the  disadvantage  of 
being  clayey  and  sticky.  In  wet  weather  the  horses  can  scarcely  pull 
the  plows  and  the  plowman's  boots  are  almost  dragged  from  his 
feet.  If  fine  sand  could  be  brought  in  and  mixed  with  such  soils  they 
would  form  almost  ideal  loams,  soft,  pliable,  and  easily  w^orked. 

Fortunately  a  large  portion  of  the  earth's  soil  does  not  remain 
where  it  was  formed.  It  is  carried  by  running  water,  glaciers,  or 
wind  and  mingled  with  other  soils.  Thus  sand  and  clay. are  brought 
together  and  form  loams.  A  soil  that  is  poor  in  one  essential  ingre- 
dient is  mixed  with  a  soil  that  is  rich  in  that  respect.  Hence  trans- 
ported soils  are  on  the  whole  much  better  than  residual  soils.  They 
are  found  as  a  rule  in  plains  and  lowlands  while  residual  soils  prevail 
in  highlands.  That  is  one  reason  why  plains  are  much  more  pros- 
perous tlian  mountains. 

How  Transportation  by  Glaciers  Improves  the  Soil. — As  an 
example  of  the  way  in  which  transported  soils  are  Ix'ttcr  than  rcsiihial 
soils  let  us  take  the  glaciated  part  of  Wisconsin.  Two  of  the  most 
characteristic  actions  of  glaciers  are,  first,  t!iat  they  scour  off  the 
more  rugged  prominences,  and  second,  that  they  caiiy  along  large 
quantities  of  the  material  thus  scoured  from  distant  regions.  This 
"  drift  "  material,  as  it  is  called,  consists  of  fine  soil  mingled  with 
])ouldei's.  It  is  de]K)site(l  in  the  low  i)lac<'s  and  tends  to  lill  up  the 
hollows.     The  transported  soil  thus  formed  is  improved  by  the  mix- 


158 


MAX'S  Ki:LA'ri()X  To  SOIL  .\M)  .mim:i:\ls 


turo  of  in;itcri;ils  from  nno  ri'^ion  with  tli;it  from  ;iii(illitM-.  Tliis  is 
(*sp('ci;illy  tlic  cm.^c  where  drift  from  a  Hmotdiie  area  i.-<  brought  into  a 
i-e^ioii  of  .><an(lstoM(\  The  following;  tahle  shows  liow  great  is  the 
(lifferencc  between  the  avera{j;o  erojis  from  tlie  <ilaciatod  part  of  Wis- 
consin and  from  the  "  driftloss  "  area  of  tliat  State  where  the  glaciers 
did  not  come: 

AVERAGE  NUMB]:i{   ( )V  liUSHELS  PER  ACHE 


Corn. 

Rye. 

Potatoes. 

Averapc. 

Driftlcss  Counties 

Glaciated  Counties 

21.0 

20.3 

9.G 
11.3 

70.0 
107.0 

35.5 
47.8 

In  every  ease  tlie  glaciated  soil  yields  a  larger  return.  The  reason 
is  that  the  sandy  residual  soil  of  the  driftlcss  areas  is  ])oor.  AMu-re 
the  glaciers  ha\'c  brought  large  quantities  of  drift  from  limestone 
areas  to  sandstone  areas,  it  is  as  if  the  farmers  had  brought  large 
quantities  of  Ihne  for  fertilizer.  The  presence  of  such  fertilizers  is 
worth  millions  of  dollars  to  a  great  many  glaciated  regions.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  value  of  glaciation  to  the  State  of  Wisconsin 
amounts  to  at  least  $50,000,000  per  year.  Most  of  this  is  due  to  tlie 
improvement  of  the  soil  by  transportation,  l^ecause  of  this  extra 
mcome  of  the  farmere,  Wisconsin  is  able  to  have  better  roads,  better 
schools,  and  a  better  university  than  would  be  possible  otherwise. 

How  Climate  Influences  the  Soil. — Other  conditions  affect  the 
soil  quite  as  much  as  does  glaciation.  Before  the  soil  can  be  used  by 
jilants  its  valuable  portions  for  plant  food  must  be  dissolved.  In 
tropical  countries,  where  rain  is  abundant  and  the  chemical  processes 
active  because  of  the  heat,  the  more  soluble  elements  are  sometimes 
wholly  dissolved  and  carried  away,  thus  practically  ruining  the  soil. 
In  dry  regions,  on  the  contrary,  the  rainfall  is  so  scanty  that  the  plant 
foods  are  neither  carried  away,  nor  used  by  vegetation.  In  fact, 
mat(n-ials  from  lower  layers  of  the  soil  are  often  l)i-ought  to  the  sur- 
face so  that  the  soil  grows  richer  and  richer.  This  is  l)ccause  much 
of  the  rainfall  of  dry  regions  sinks  into  the  ground  only  to  come  out 
again  by  evaporation.  As  it  evaporates  it  leaves  the  dissolved  chem- 
icals Ix'hind.  I  f  I  he  farmer  irrigates  such  soils  he  finds  them  unusually 
fertih^  This  partly  accounts  for  some  of  the  wonderful  crops  in  New- 
Mexico,  Arizona,  southern  ('alif()rnia,eastern  Washington, and  Oregon. 

In  ordinary  temperate  chmates  witii  a  lair  amount  of  rain  the 
plant  foods  ar(>  !iot  washed  away  as  they  are  in  the  wet,  warm  trojiical 
regions,  noi-  do  they  accunnilate  as  in  dry  regions.  Hence  ordinary 
vegetation  usually  has  enough  of  each  kind,  but  when  a  single  crop 
is  cultivated  for  a  nmnber  of  years  certain  chemicals  are  used  up 


SOIL  AND  THE  FARMER  159 

more  rapidly  than  they  are  prepared  by  the  processes  of  weathering. 
There  may  be  enoiijih  of  th(>ni,  but  tliey  are  not  ready  for  use. 

The  Unwise  Use  of  Soil. — Since  all  life  depends  on  the  soil  it  is 
evidently  of  supreme  importance  to  preserve  or  renew  its  fertility.  In 
a  state  of  nature  most  plants  die  where  they  grow.  The  materials 
which  they  contain  are  thus  returned  to  the  soil  through  decay. 
Moreover,  there  are  usually  many  varieties  of  plants  on  the  same 
area,  so  that  the  same  kind  of  food  is  not  demanded  by  all.  On 
farms,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  dcA^ote  the  whole  of 
a  given  area  to  a  single  crop  at  any  given  time.  When  the  crop  is 
reaped,  it  is  carried  away  and  consumed  somewhere  else.  Thus  there 
is  a  gTeat  drain  on  the  soil.  For  example,  many  early  settlers  of  the 
great  plains  of  our  Central  and  Western  States  wanted  to  get  rich  as 
quickly  as  possible.  Accordingly,  they  planted  wheat  or  some  other 
favorite  and  profitable  crop  year  after  year,  and  returned  nothing  to 
the  soil.  At  first  the  crops  were  wonderfully  abundant,  but  soon 
the  soil  began  to  show  signs  of  exhaustion,  the  crops  fell  off,  and  the 
value  of  the  farms  declined.  They  forgot  that  one  of  their  duties  is 
to  see  that  the  fields  are  passed  on  to  their  descendants  in  good  con- 
dition. In  the  Southern  States,  also  many  farmers  have  injured 
their  lands  by  planting  nothing  but  tobacco,  which  speedily  exhausts 
the  phosphorus  of  the  soil,  or  cotton,  which  does  the  same  thing  more 
slowly.  These  crops  bring  good  prices  and  are  an  easy  way  of  getting 
ready  money,  but  to  sell  the  fertility  of  the  soil  along  with  the  crop 
is  like  killing  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs. 

The  Wise  Use  of  the  Soil. — (1)  Rotation  of  Crops. — The  wise 
farmer  lessens  this  drain  on  the  soil  in  two  ways:  (1)  by  rotation  of 
crops,  and  (2)  by  using  fertilizers.  Rotation  of  crops  means  that  the 
farmer  plants  different  crops  from  year  to  3'ear,  so  that  on  a  given 
area  the  same  elements  are  not  constantly  required  in  large  amounts. 
It  is  called  rotation  because  after  a  few  years  the  same  series  of  crops 
is  planted  over  again.  In  planning  a  rotation  the  object  is  not  onlj'  to 
use  crops  which  do  not  require  the  same  food,  but  to  include  some, 
such  as  buckwheat  and  clover,  which  can  be  plowed  under  to  serve 
as  fertilizer.  For  instance,  beets  necxl  a  great  deal  of  potash,  while 
wheat  in  proportion  to  its  bulk  requires  only  half  as  much,  but  needs 
nearly  twice  as  much  nitrogen.  Clover,  and  peas,  on  the  other  hand, 
do  not  require  much  nitrogen  from  the  soil.  Indecnl  they  actually 
take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  give  to  the  soil.  Hence  beets,  wheat, 
and  peas  would  make  a  proper  rotation. 

The  rotation  of  crops  has  still  another  value,  as  the  people  who 
raise  cotton  found  out  in  the  early  part  of  the  Great  War.  As  Kng- 
hiiid  ]irevented  the  shipment  of  cotton  to  Germany  and  Austria, 


IGO  MANS  KELAllU-N   TO  SUlL  AND   MlNEllALS 

the  market  for  the  crop  was  restricted  and  the  price  fell  very  low. 
As  the  fanners  had  no  other  ini])ortant  croj)  to  sell  many  of  them 
could  not  iKiy  their  debts,  eventhoiiiih  they  had  lar^e  sup])lies  of 
cotton.  If  they  luul  practiceil  rotation  of  croi)s,  part  of  their  land 
would  have  been  in  corn,  ])art  in  Ijeans,  j^eanuts,  or  sweet  ])otatoes. 
They  could  hnw  sold  these  ci-ojjs  at  <i'ood  ])rices  and  thus  have  l)een 
able  to  jjet  alontj;  for  a  year  or  more  until  cotton  ajjain  rose  to  a  profit- 
able price.  In  1915  tluy  began  to  leai'u  this  l(>sson,  and  ])lanted  far 
more  corn  than  ever  before.  The  rotation  of  cro))s  also  helps  in 
checkini;  the  ravaj^es  of  ins(>cts  and  of  various  i)lant  dis(>ases  due  to 
l)acteria  and  other  causes.  Wise  farmers  fintl  that  a  variety  of  crops 
is  as  valual)le  in  i)eace  as  in  war. 

(2)  Use  of  Fertilizers. — The  SoutluM-n  farmer  who  i-aises  cattle 
and  pigs  can  use  the  second  method  of  pn^serving  the  fei'tility  of  the 
soil.  The  seed  from  his  cotton,  after  the  oil  has  ])een  extracted, 
makes  good  food  for  cattle,  while  corn  is  the  best  kind  of  food  for  pigs 
and  hens.  Thus  nuich  of  the  nutriment  taken  from  the  soil  by  the 
crops  is  returned  in  the  form  of  manure.  The  Chinese  not  only 
return  to  the  soil  all  the  waste  pi'oducts  of  animals,  but  also  human 
waste  and  sewage  which  we  permit  to  pollute  our  rivers  and  harbors. 
Inevitably,  however,  if  some  products  are  carried  away  from  the 
farm,  there  is  a  loss  of  fertility,  even  though  there  is  a  wise  rota- 
tion of  crops  and  many  animals  are  raised.  If  weathering  is  ver^' 
rapid  this  loss  may  be  supplied  by  the  freeing  of  new  materials  in 
the  lower  parts  of  the  soil,  but  generally  the  soil  becomes  steadily 
poorer  unless  artificial  fertilizers  are  employed. 

What  Chemicals  Plants  Need  from  the  Soil. — In  order  to  jiro- 
vide  the  rigid  kind  of  aitificial  fertilizei's  it  is  necessary  to  know  (1) 
what  chemical  compounds  ])lants  need,  and  (2)  how  nuich  of  these 
the  soil  contains.  A  good  soil  must  contain  at  least  seven  chemical 
elements  in  such  foi'm  that  tiiey  can  readily  be  dissolved  and  absoi-bed 
by  the  plants.  Thi'(>e  of  these  are  magnesium,  iron,  and  sulphui-. 
The  farmer  need  not  worry  about  these,  foi-  tlu^v  are  jii-actic-illy 
always  present  in  sufficient  abundance  for  any  kind  of  ci-op.  Tiie 
supply  of  the  othei-  four — calcium,  ))hosi)hoi  us,  ixitassium,  and 
nitrogen — is  often  in.adeciuate.  ('eitain  other  elements  such  as 
silicon,  chlorine,  and  sochum  are  also  taken  from  the  soil  by  plants, 
l)ut  do  not  seem  to  be  ess(>ntial,  for  gi'owth  goes  on  ap]iar(Mitly 
unelieekeil  witlioiii  theiii.  Therefore,  among  the  many  chemicals  ot 
the  soil,  only  calcium,  piiosphorus,  potassium,  and  nitrogen  cause  the 
farmei'  ti'oul)le  because  they  are  not  available  in  sufficient  (juantities. 

How  the  Farmer  Knows  what  Kind  of  Fertilizer  to  Use. — The 
following  tal)Ie  shows  the  amount   of  the  chiet'  elemeids  used  1)V  an 


SOIL  AND  THE  FARMER 


161 


acre  of  beets  each  year,  \\u'  amount  of  each  in  the  uppei-  part  of  an 
ordinary  loamy  soil,  and  the  number  of  years  that  the  element  would 
last  if  the  beets  could  get  every  bit  of  it.  Evidently  the  farmer  who 
is  raising  beets  needs  to  provide  fertilizers  rich  in  potash  and  nitrogen 
rather  than  in  phosphorus  and  calcium.  It  must  be  rememl)ered, 
however,  that  the  process  by  which  nature  prepares  the  soil  ingre- 


liy  courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dcpt.  Ayricullure. 
Fig.  45. — A  Phenomcual  Corn  Crop  Raised  by  Boys. 
This  shows  what  can  be  done  even  by  boys  if  the  soil  is  properly  enriched  and  cultivated. 


dients  is  slow.  Hence  if  beets  are  raised  each  year  tliey  exhaust  the 
available  supply  while  large  reserves  are  still  waiting  to  be  prepared. 
Even  after  five  or  ten  years,  unless  fertilizers  are  applied,  the  avail- 
able nitrogen  would  be  so  scanty  that  the  crop  would  not  be  worth 
raising.  In  other  kinds  of  soil,  some  of  the  other  chief  elements 
may  be  exhausted.  For  example,  in  a  sandy  soil,  tlie  j^lants  are 
stunted  for  luck  of  lime. 


162 


MAX'S    RELATION    TO   SOIL   AND    MINERALS 


6  r 


rr     c   o 


H    2-3 


J^LXLl.- 


SOIL  AND   THE  FARMER 


163 


RELATIVE    AMOUNTS    OF    IMPORTANT    INGREDIENTS    IN 
AN   ORDINARY  SOIL 


A 

Soil  Tngi-cdionfs 

B 

Amount  used  Eaoh 

Year  by  an  Acre 

of  Beets,  Lbs. 

c 

.Amount  in  Upper 

Foot  of  an  Acre  of 

Loam,  Lbs. 

D 

Number  of  Years 
lliat  Ingredient 
Would  Last  if  Whole 
Supply  were  Avail- 
able. 

Calcium  in  the  form  of 

lime 

Phosphorus  in  the  form 

of  phosphoric  acid.  .  . 
Potassium  in  the  form  ot 

potash  

Nitrogen  in  the  form  of 

nitrates  and  ammonia 

43 

53 

300 

149 

54,000 

12,800 

23,000 

7,000 

1,260 
240 

77 
47 

Artificial  Fertilizers. — Lime. — In  searching  for  fertilizers  other 
than  manure,  it  is  necessary  to  find  materials  whicli  are  not  iinchily 
expensive  and  which  will  furnish  lune,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and 
nitrogen  in  forms  tliat  the  plants  can  readily  assimilate.  Lim(;  pre- 
sents no  special  difficulty.  Almost  all  parts  of  the  world  contain 
hmestone  l:)eds,  and  it  is  merely  a  ciuestion  of  finding  the  cheapest 
means  of  pulverizing  the  rock  and  making  it  easily  accessible  to  the 
plants. 

Phosphates. — Phosphates  are  not  so  easy  to  find.  They  are  ob- 
tained from  four  chief  sources:  (1)  They  occur  abundantly  in  a  few 
minerals  such  as  apatite,  but  these  are  generally  so  intermingled  with 
quartz,  feldspar,  and  other  materials  that  it  is  difficult  to  pn^pare 
the  phosphates  as  a  fertilizer.  (2)  The  easiest  source  is  the  slaughter 
house,  from  which  the  bones  and  refuse  meat  of  domestic  animals  are 
taken  to  ill-smelling  fertilizer  plants.  In  former  yeare  bon(>-hunters 
drove  their  wagons  over  our  Western  plains  gathering  the  skeletons 
of  buffalo  and  cattle  that  had  perished  in  blizzards,  by  the  wolf  pack, 
or  at  the  hand  of  the  hunter. 

(3)  As  the  present  supply  of  bones  and  other  niiiiual  refuse  is  not 
sufficient,  man  draws  on  the  past.  One  of  the  iiiii)()it:iiit  sources  of 
jihosphates  is  great  beds  of  guano  or  bird  droppings  on  several  di-y 
islands  of  the  South  Pacific  and  West  Indies.  From  about  IS'M)  to 
1880  guano  worth  about  $600,000,000  was  taken  from  the  Chiiicha 
Islands  off  the  coast  of  Peru  and  carried  around  Cape  Horn  to  be 
sold  in  Europe  and  America  at  $30  to  $00  per  ton.  The  Peruvian 
government  was  largely  supported  by  the  taxes  on  tli(>  guano  until 
the  deposits  were  exhausted.  ( )nly  a  limited  supjily  is  now  availal)li\ 
(4)  To-day  the  world  is  drawing  on  still  older  deposits  of  animal  bones 
and  refuse  in  the  form  of  phosphate  rocks.     The  chief  supi)ly  comes 


164  MAX',^   RELATION  TO   SOIL  AND   MIXKRAT^S 

from  I'loiida,  Soutli  ( 'aiolina,  mihI  Tennessee,  together  witli  Tunis, 
Algeria,  and  sonic  of  the  small  islands  of  the  sea,  bul  much  is  availai>le 
in  Montana,  Idaho,  I'tah,  and  Wyoming. 

l\)t(ish. — For  a  long  lime  the  United  States  had  more  difficulty 
in  getting  jiotash  than  i)hosi)horus.  The  only  largely  worked  dejiosits 
were  in  Stassfui't,  Pi'ussia;  other  sourees,  such  as  Alsace  and  Sjiain, 
supplied  i-clativcly  little.  Tlic  daiigci'  that  tlic  supply  would  he  cut 
otT,  and  the  pi'ice  rise  to  a  prohibitive  hgur(>  led  the  I'nited  States 
government  to  undertake  a  seai'ch  for  ncnv  sources.  This  led  to  the 
use  of  several  salt  lakes  whence  most  of  tlic  limited  Amciicaii  jn'oduc- 
tion  now  conu^s.  It  also  led  to  the  use  of  kelp  along  the  Pacific 
coast,  as  already  described,  and  to  the  further  development  of  the 
processes  of  cxti'act ion  of  jjotash  from  the  dust  of  cement  mills  and 
blast  furnaces. 

The  largest  single  soui'ce  of  i)otash  in  the  I'nited  States  is  Scarles 
Lake  in  southwestern  California.  This  strange  desert  lake,  twenty 
square  miles  in  extent,  r(>sembles  a  mass  of  ice  covered  with  an 
inch  or  two  of  slush  and  saturated  with  l)itter  l)rine.  The  ice-like 
material  is  rock-salt  ami  other  saline  materials  dei)osit(Hl  as  ciystals 
by  the  diying  uj)  of  a  large  lake  whose  traces  are  still  seen  in  muuei-ous 
shore-lines  at  high  levels.  Th(>  brine  is  pumped  from  wells  75  or  ]()() 
feet  deep  and  evaporated  until  the  potash  crystallizes  out.  The 
pi-oduct  is  shipped  all  over  the  country  to  replace  that  which  the 
fai'mers  have  sent  to  market  in  the  form  of  meat,  wheat,  and  other 
food  supplies.  If  the  fai'mei-  would  ])r()])eily  ])reserve  the  straw, 
cornstalks,  cotton-seed  l)ull)s  and  similai'  sul)stances  that  are  now 
wasted  or  burned,  the  ne(Ml  of  ]:)otash  would  be  nuich  diminish(Ml. 

The  Search  for  Nitrogen,  Among  the  essential  ingredients  of 
the  soil  nitrogen  is  nnich  th(>  hardest  to  obtain.  Its  original  sourc(»  is 
chiefly  the  air.  The  amount  in  the  air  is  inexhaustible.  Yet  until 
recently  it  was  almost,  useless  to  the  farmer,  for  no  one  knew  how  to 
convert  it  into  a  soluble  compound  that  could  be  carried  through  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  This  is  because  nitrogen  is  one  of  tlu;  most 
inacti\'e  (•hcniical  clcnirnts.  (^)uitc  unlike  such  an  active  substance 
as  oxygen,  it  will  not  readily  unite  with  other  elements. 

No  plants  are  by  themselves  able  to  take  nitrogen  fi'om  the  air. 
Fortunately,  however,  there  are  c(M-tain  bacteiia  which  have  this 
power.  They  grow  only  on  ])lants  of  the  legume  family,  that  is,  on 
beans,  peas,  clover,  alfalfa,  and  similar  sjx'cies.  They  thrive  espe- 
cially on  the  roots,  where  they  form  little  bunches  or  tubercles  full 
of  nitrogen.  All  other  cultivated  ])lants  diminish  the  sui)i)ly  of 
nitrogen  in  the  soil;  the  legumes  alone  replace  it.  I'armers  have 
known  for  generations  that  it  pays  to  plant  peas  or  beans  and  plow 


SOIL  AND  THE  FARMER  165 

them  under  for  fertilizer,  Init  did  not  know  why.  Scientific  investi- 
gators after  much  study  discovered  the  reason  and  found  that  the 
bacteria  that  cause  "  nitrification  "  can  be  raised  artificially,  and 
shipped  anywhere.  When  clover  seed  is  inoculated  with  them  the 
roots  become  covered  with  imusually  large  tubercles  which  contain 
nitrogen,  and  thus  the  fields  are  fertilized. 

Many  farmers  do  not  want  their  land  to  "waste  a  year,"  as  they 
say,  while  a  crop  of  clover  refertilizes  the  soil.  They  prefer  to  raise 
something  that  pays  in  money  and  therefore  are  glad  to  buy  com- 
mercial nitrogen  fertilizers.  This  has  had  some  interesting  results. 
The  Atacama  Desert  in  northern  Chile  contains  by  far  the  largest 
known  deposits  of  nitrates  or  compounds  of  nitrogen.  They  have 
been  exploited  to  the  value  of  $50,000,000  each  year.  The  taxes 
]iaid  In'  the  British  companies  that  work  the  nitrate  fields  are  the 
cliief  sources  of  the  revenue  of  the  Cliilean  government.  Before  the 
value  of  the  nitrogen  was  known  the  Atacama  Desert  was  such  a 
barren  waste  that  no  one  thought  much  about  it,  although  Chile, 
Peru,  and  Bolivia  all  laid  claim  to  parts  of  it.  When  its  value  began 
to  be  appreciated,  however,  about  1879,  the  three  countries  wanted 
it.     This  led  to  a  long  war  in  which  Chile  was  the  victor. 

Another  interesting  result  of  the  demand  for  nitrogen  fertilizers 
is  seen  in  Norway.  After  the  value  of  nitrates  was  reaUzed  people 
l)egan  to  search  for  means  of  utilizing  the  unlimited  supply  of  nitrogen 
in  the  air.  Success  was  at  last  obtained  by  means  of  strong  electric 
currents  which  cause  the  atmospheric  nitrogen  to  unite  with  lime  or 
other  sul)stanccs.  ]\Iuch  power  is  reciuired  for  the  electric  discharges, 
so  that  the  process  is  conunercially  profitable  only  where  power  is 
cheap.  The  cheapest  known  source  of  power  is  waterfalls,  which  are 
especially  abundant  in  rugged  Norway.  Since  raw  materials  of 
most  kinds  are  not  abundant  there  and  nitrogen  is  present  eveiy- 
where  the  manufacture  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  has  become  an  im- 
portant industiy.  In  the  United  States  part  of  the  water  power  of 
Niagara  is  being  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  work  of  obtaining  fertilizers  from  old  bone  dei)osits,  from 
desert  lakes,  and  from  the  air  may  seem  remote  from  the  lives  of 
people  Avho  live  in  cities.  Yet  it  concerns  eveiy  one  of  us.  The 
farmers  supply  us  with  most  of  the  materials  for  the  food  and  clothing 
which  play  so  large  a  part  in  the  lives  of  all  of  us.  If  the  farmei-s  do 
not  have  rich  soil  and  cannot  raise  their  crops  abundantly  and  chea])ly, 
the  price  of  food  and  clothing  goes  up,  and  we  all  suffer.  Therefore, 
it  is  of  tlu^  greatest  inqiortance  that  the  farmers'  need  of  good  f(>r- 
tilizers  should  be  fully  net. 


166 


MAN'S    HI;LATI()X   to   soil   and    MINKRALS 


QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  TJiOBLEiMS 

1.  Classify  the  soils  of  the  neighborhood  \Yhcre  you  live,  according  to  their 
texture;  i.e.,  (a)  gravel,  (h)  sand,  (r)  clay,  ((/)  loam.  Also,  if  possible,  classify 
them  according  to  the  fertilizing  elements  which  they  esjiecially  need.  For  help 
along  this  line  write  to  the  Director,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  lind  whether  a  .soil  rejjort  has  been  i.ssued  on  your  region.  A.ssign  to  each 
main  kind  of  soil  its  j)roper  rank  according  to  (a)  the  area  which  it  occupies,  {b) 
its  utility  to  fanners  anil  gardeners,  and  (c)  the  crops  that  arc  raised  on  it.  Find 
out  what  manures  and  fertilizers  are  used  to  incrcvise  the  productivity  of  each  .soil 
and  where  these  fertilizers  come  from. 

2.  Take  a  small  test  tube,  a  large  test  tube,  and  a  glass  beaker.  Fit  the  test 
tubes  with  corks  through  each  of  which  run  two  glass  tubes.  Arrange  the  three 
vessels  as  shown  in  Fig.  47  and  run  a  stream  of  water  through  them  by  connecting 
the  rubber  tube  O  with  a  faucet.  Note  that  the  current  pa.ssing  through  the 
small  tube  A  is  very  swift;   note   that  the  water  moves  less  swiftly  through  tube 


Fig.  47.— Effect  of  Currents  on  Texture  of  Soil. 


B  and  slower  still  in  the  open  vessel  C.  Now  empty  tlic  a])])aratus  and  fill  the 
tube  A  with  garden  soil.  Run  the  water  through  it  again  for  five  minutes  and 
examine  the  result.  State  carefully  the  character  and  size  of  particles  found  in  .1, 
B,  and  C,  respectively,  and  interi)ret  this  rough  analysis  of  the  soil.  Do  the  same 
with  some  sandy  soil;  with  gravel,  and  with  day.  Write  a  geograi>hical  interpreta- 
tion of  your  results  by  a])i)lying  them  to  three  or  four  t yjn's  nf  soil  near  >dur  hdiiic 

3.  Make  a  tracing  of  the  map  of  the  State  of  Alabama  and  mark  tiie  position 
of  every  town  with  a  population  of  3000  or  more.  A  list  of  towns  is  found  in  the 
census  reports  and  in  several  popular  atlases.  Write  a  careful  statement  of  the 
distribution  of  the  population  indicated  by  your  map,  and  suggest  reasons  for  this 
distribution. 

4.  Find  out  what  schemes  of  rotation  of  crops  are  used  on  the  farms  in  your 
ncighborhof)d.  How  and  why  does  the  rotation  dilTer  on  dilTerent  kinds  of  soil? 
On  the  basis  of  this  anfl  of  exerci.se  1,  make  a  maj)  of  the  chief  agricultural  divisions 
of  your  neighborhood. 

5.  In  Germany  an<l  northern  France,  the  raising  of  sugar  beets  is  nearly  always 
connected  with  stock  raising.  Make  a  list,  showing  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  this  method. 

6.  At  the  docks  at  Liverpool,  tramp  steamers  from  Ar^M'iitiiia  may  be  .seen 
unloading  cargoes  of  bones.  \\'hy  are  the  bones  .sent  on  (ramp  vessels;  wh}'  from 
Argentina;  and  why  to  the  United  Kingdom? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
METALS  AND  CIVILIZATION 

Why  Minerals  Are  Most  Abundant  among  Mountains. — It  is 

fortunate  tliat  the  earth's  iiiteniiittent  contraetion  has  bent  and 
broken  the  crust  and  caused  molten  materials  to  move  from  lower  to 
higher  levels.  Otherwise  many  minerals  would  be  practically  un- 
known, for  metals,  which  are  the  most  valuable  minerals,  are  heavy. 
For  instance,  iron  weighs  three  and  gold  seven  times  as  much  as 
quartz.  Consequently  during  the  earth's  cooling  the  metals  seem 
largely  to  have  sunk  into  the  interior.  That  is  probably  one  reason 
why  the  earth  as  a  whole  weighs  twice  as  much  per  cubic  foot  as  docs 
the  outer  mile  or  two  of  the  crust.  If  the  crust  had  never  been  bent, 
broken,  and  uplifted,  and  if  molten  parts  of  the  interior  had  never 
been  forced  upward,  the  heavier  minerals  would  probably  now  be 
almost  entirely  buried  far  beyond  our  reach. 

It  is  equally  fortunate  that  erosion  has  taken  place  on  a  large 
scale.  Otherwise  most  of  the  metallic  deposits,  even  though  uplifted, 
would  be  buried  under  an  enormously  thick  layer  of  dense  rock. 
During  the  lapse  of  millions  of  years,  however,  erosion — especially  the 
work  of  rivers — has  carried  away  thousands  of  feet  of  rock  and  ex- 
posed many  deep-seated  deposits.  Unfortunately,  an  inmieasurable 
quantity  of  valuable  minerals  has  thus  been  wasted  l>y  being  carried 
to  the  sea  as  mud,  but  this  is  necessary  if  the  underlying  rocks  are  to 
be  exposed. 

The  processes  of  bending,  breaking,  and  uplifting  the  crust,  of 
bringing  melted  materials  from  the  interior,  and  of  eroding  the  higher 
and  more  exposed  rocks  are  all  most  active  among  mountains.  There 
the  ores  and  other  deposits  have  been  raised  al)ove  the  ordinary 
levels,  so  that  they  are  easily  exposed  by  erosion.  Hence  mining 
industries  are  largely  concentrated  in  regions  of  rugged  relief.  Thus 
in  the  United  States  the  chief  mining  regions  are  in  the  Sierra  Nevadas, 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  Appalachians.  The  mountainous  relief 
of  Arizona  is  one  of  the  factors  in  its  annual  production  of  minerals 
worth  more  than  $40,000,000,  oi-  a  value  of  over  $170  for  eacli  inhab- 
itant. In  the  same  way  mountainous  INIontana  produces  over  $175 
per  inhabitant.  Texas,  on  the  contiaiN,  ^\hich  consists  largely  of 
plains,  produces    minerals  worth    only  si'..")!)    to    $3    jier  inhabitant 

1G7 


1G8  MANS   RELATION  TO   SOIL  AND   MINERALS 

while   the   li^un>   for   the   flat  State  of   Mississi])])!  is  only  70  cents. 
None  of  the  mineral  Avealth  of  Mississi]i])i  is  nu'liillic. 

In  some  eases,  such  as  thc>  Lake  Superior  district,  with  its  iron 
and  co]i])er,  a  niincinl  region  presents  almost  the  gentle  relief  of  a 
l)enei)lain,  hut  the  jjiMitly  rounded  hills  still  show  that  the}'  were 
once  mountains  of  rutii:;(>(l  relief. 

Mineral  fuels,  unlike  most  of  the  metals,  are  found  in  ])lains  as 
well  as  in  i-u<i<i-cd  repons.  Thus  coal  is  mined  extensively  in  the 
plains  of  Illinois  and  Ohio  as  well  as  among  the  hills  of  western  Penn- 
sylvania. Among  mountains,  such  as  those  of  eastern  Pennsylvania, 
the  coal  is  likely  to  have  been  so  folded,  heated,  and  press(>d  that  it  is 
changed  from  the  soft,  bituminous  form  of  the  plains  to  the  hard 
form  known  as  anthracite. 

Petroleum  occurs  almost  entirely  in  regions  where  there  has 
l)cen  little  ilisturbance  of  the  rocks.  The  world's  givat  oil  fields  are 
often  found  in  ])huns  like  those  of  California,  Oklahoma,  and  Mexico. 
If  th(>  rocks  are  nuich  bent,  the  petroleum  with  the  accompanying 
natural  gas  is  almost  sure  to  escape. 

Stages  of  Mining  Industries. — (1)  Prospecting. — The  first  stage 
of  the  mining  industry  is  prospecting  which  includes  any  kind  of 
search  for  valuable  minerals.  Among  the  mountains  of  Colorado 
or  California,  for  example,  one  now  and  again  meets  an  unkempt, 
unsha^'en  ]irospector  flriving  two  or  three  donkeys  laden  with  samples 
of  rock  to  be  "assaj-ed"  or  tested.  For  months  he  has  been  camping 
alone  and  spending  his  days  prowling  among  the  mountains  in  search 
of  rock  that  looks  like  good  ore.  Now  and  again  he  places  a  "loca- 
tion" paper  in  an  empty  tin  can  on  the  end  of  an  upright  stick,  and 
leaves  it  to  declare  that  he  claims  this  particular  location.  If  the  ore 
proves  valuable,  he  will  file  the  necessary  documents  with  the  govcn-n- 
ment. 

The  lon(^ly  and  often  dangerous  lih^  of  tlu^  ]irospector  makes  him 
hard>'  and  resourceful.  He  is  so  glad  to  see  a  new  face  that  he  is  ex- 
tremely o])en-hearted  and  hospitable  not  only  to  his  conu'axU^s,  but 
to  strangers.  In  spite  of  these  good  traits,  however,  i)i-os])e(toi-s 
rarely  prosper.  All  their  dangers  and  har(lshi])s  seldom  result  in 
riches  or  even  in  a  good  living.  The  trouble  is  that  on  their  rare  visits 
to  town  they  promptly  waste  their  money, — "blow  it  in"  on  gambling 
and  dissi])ation, — and  are  soon  poor  again.  When  they  make  a  real 
find  their  jnoney  comes  so  easily  that  they  have  the  gambler's  spirit, 
and  spend  it  at  once  because  they  think  that  they  can  quickly  get 
more.  With  the  growth  of  the  science  of  geology  even  the  ignorant 
prospector  is  realizing  the  value  of  the  trained  expert  who  lives  in 
the  lowland  cities  mi  id  makes  occasional  expeditions  to  the  mountains. 


METALS  AND   CIVILIZATION  169 

(2)  Development. — After  a  promising  prospect  has  been  located, 
it  is  "developed,"  sometimes  by  the  prospector,  but  usually  bj^  some 
lowlander  who  can  furnish  the  necessary  capital.  "Development" 
consists  of  exposing  enough  ore  to  see  whether  its  quality  and 
abundance  warrant  the  building  of  a  mill  and  the  installation  of 
permanent  machinery.  Roads  must  be  constructed  to  carry  the  ore 
to  places  where  it  can  be  assayed,  and  to  bring  supplies;  shacks  must 
be  built;  and  miners  must  be  hired.  Where  much  development  is 
going  on  small  towns  grow  up.  They  are  the  typical  smaller  mining 
"camps"  of  our  Western  mountains.  They  contain  almost  no  lam- 
ilies,  for  since  the  work  may  end  any  day  men  do  not  bring  their 
wives  and  children.  The  poolroom  and  dance  hall  are  usually  the 
main  social  centers.  Wages  are  high;  the  stores  charge  exorbitant 
prices;  and  the  miners  spend  their  money  freely.  Such  a  camp  is 
full  of  the  evil  influences  that  go  with  a  life  that  depends  chiefly  on 
"luck"  and  not  on  steady  work. 

Mining  Booms. — While  mines  are  being  developed  among  the 
mountains,  "booms"  are  apt  to  be  launched  in  the  cities  of  the  low- 
lands. The  owners  of  a  valuable  prospect  must  replace  their  rough 
trails  by  good  roads  or  railways,  they  must  erect  stamp  mills  to  crush 
the  ore,  and  smeltei"S  to  melt  it  and  separate  the  metal  from  the  im- 
purities. In  order  to  attract  capital  they  print  glowing  advertise- 
ments telling  how  rich  and  abundant  is  the  ore  and  how  quickly  in- 
vestors will  grow  wealthy.  Often  the  promoter  of  such  a  prospective 
mine  really  believe  what  they  say,  but  are  mistaken.  Equally  often, 
unscrupulous  promoters  tell  big  stories  without  regard  to  the  truth. 
Rarely  do  investore  in  mines  that  are  pubUcly  boomed  recover  even 
the  money  that  they  put  in,  and  much  less  make  a  profit.  Generally 
if  the  prospects  are  really  good,  there  are  plenty  of  people  to  supply 
the  capital  without  much  advertising.  Among  the  urban  population 
of  this  country  who  have  a  small  surplus  for  investment  many 
have  lost  money  in  mining  ventures.  They  ought  to  know  that  the 
vast  majority  of  mines  do  not  pay. 

(3)  Permanent  Mining. — INIost  mining  ventures  never  get  beyond 
the  stages  of  prospecting  and  development.  The  few  that  sur\-ive 
may  give  rise  to  relatively  permanent  industries.  Iron  ore,  alu- 
minum-bearing rocks,  and  coal  beds  frequently  occur  in  such  abun- 
dance that  work  can  be  carried  on  in  the  same  region  for  generations. 
The  coal  beds  of  Wales,  for  example,  have  yielded  a  vast  supply  of 
fuel  for  over  a  century.  In  the  United  States  the  enormous  iron 
deposits  of  the  Lake  Superior  district  have  been  worked  extensi\cly 
since  the  early  eighties  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  they  show  no 
signs  of  exhaustion  and  some  actually  grow  richer  the  more  dcx^plj^ 


170 


MAX'S   RELATION'  TO  SOIL  AND   MIXIlltALS 


thoy   :iro    pcnptratcd.     Tlu>    precious   metals   on    the   contrary   are 

usually  found  in  small  veins  which  may  suddenly  come  to  an  end 
without  warniiifi,  and  the  same  is  tru(>  ot"  copper  and  lead,  luii 
to  a  less  de}j;ree.  I'etrohnnu  deposits  arc  also  likely  to  diminish 
rapidly. 

The  Precious  Metals.— (1)  J*Iacer  Mining. — The  ]m'cious  metals 
may  serv^e  as  an  example  of  the  stages  of  the  mining  industr}^  Gold 
occurs  in  such  a  form  tliat  it  particularly  encouraj^es  ]irospecting. 
Much  of  it  is  found  in  small  flakes  or  nufigets  in  "])lacers,"  that  is,  in 
gi'avel  deposited  by  runninji;  water.  Even  with  the  crudest  a.])])aratus 
the  gold  can  be  recovered.     The  gravel  may  l)e  jjlaced  in  a  large  i)an 


Dollars 
20,000,000 


15,000,000 


10,000,000 


6,000,000 


I  11  I  {  I  I   M  I  I  I  I   I  I  I  I  M  I  I  I   I  I   I  '  M  1  I 


Dollars 
-  20.000,000 


15,000,000 


10,000,000 


5,000,000 


Fig.  48. — Golil  iJroduclidii   in    ^'^ll\()n. 


with  water  and  swii-led  ubout.  so  that  the  water  and  gravel  gradually 
spill  out.  The  gold,  being  heavy,. stays  at  the  bottom  of  the  ])an. 
Hence  anyone  who  can  pay  his  way  to  the  mining  region  can  eng.age 
in  gold  mining.  There  is  always  the  cliance  of  coining  u])on  a  pocket 
of  gold  dust  or  nuggets  and  l)e('oming  rich  in  a,  day. 

When  the  news  of  the  great  gold  dei)osits  of  Klondike  became 
known  in  LSOl),  miners  and  adventures  from  many  lands  toik^d  across 
the  bitlcrl>'  <'(ild  mountains  of  Alaska,  l^veryone  was  so  feverishly 
anxious  to  "make  his  pile"  that  almost  no  one  was  willing  to  do  the 
ordinaiy  work  of  life  sucli  as  cooking,  house-lniilding,  stor(>-keeping, 
and  road-building.     Hence  wages  rose  to  fi\ c  or  ten  times  their  usual 


METALS   AND   CIVILIZATION  171 

level.  Since  the  cost  of  carrying  a  ton  a  mile  over  the  mountains 
was  about  $20,  the  vast  majority  of  the  30,000  people  who  penetrated 
the  region  had  to  spend  most  of  their  earnings  in  paying  for  food  and 
lodging.  The  production  of  gold  increased  rapidly  for  a  few  yeai-s  as 
is  shown  in  Fig.  48,  but  soon  declined.  This  is  tjqoical  of  most  min- 
ing ventures.  So  too  is  the  way  in  which  most  of  the  minei-s  returned 
home  as  poor  as  when  they  came. 

(2)  Hydraulic  Mining. — Fig.  48  shows  that  after  1907  the  pro- 
duction of  gold  at  Klondike  beg-an  again  to  rise.  This  was  because 
of  new  methods.  In  the  hydi-aulic  method,  for  example,  gi-eat 
streams  of  water  are  shot  against  gravel  banks.  The  water  carries 
the  gravel  into  sluices  where  the  heavy  gold  lodges  in  corrugations 
like  those  of  a  washboard.  In  California  hydraulic  mining  has 
caused  the  bottoms  of  many  mountain  valleys  to  l)e  stripped  to  the 
naked  rock,  for  all  the  gravel  has  been  washed  down  to  the  lowlands, 
where  it  does  nuich  harm  to  the  farms.  Wliere  gold  placers  l^ordc^r 
navigable  rivei-s  as  in  the  plain  of  California,  gi'eat  floating  dredges 
scoop  vip  the  gi'avel  and  extract  the  gold.  Such  a  dredge  digs  its  own 
channel  ahead  of  it,  and  fills  the  space  behind  itself  with  gi'eat  heaps 
of  washed  pebbles  and  cobble  stones. 

(3)  Mines  in  Solid  Rock. — The  particles  of  gold  in  placer  deposits 
come  from  veins  in  the  solid  rock.  There — far  under  grountl — hot 
mineralized  water  long  ago  deposited  the  gold  as  thin  plates  or  scat- 
tered bits  in  the  midst  of  such  minerals  as  quartz.  After  the  excite- 
ment of  a  new  gold  field  is  over,  prospectors  begin  to  search  for  the 
veins  that  have  been  exposed  at  the  surface  by  uplift  and  prolonged 
erosion.  Then  comes  the  more  permanent  stage  of  mining.  The 
process  of  getting  either  gold  or  silver  from  the  veins  demands 
much  capital  and  is  impossible  for  the  ordinaiy  miner.  Larger 
companies   are  formed  and  towns  grow  up. 

A  good  sample  of  such  a  town  is  Virginia  City  in  Nevada.  At 
first  the  ignorant  miners  there  searched  onl}^  for  gold,  and  threw 
away  a  black  silver  ore  which  formed  the  great  Comstock  Lode,  the 
richest  ore  deposit  in  the  world  in  proportion  to  its  size.  From  1859 
to  1880  the  Lode  produced  nu>lals  valued  at  8305,000,000.  In  1877 
the  value  was  over  S3(),()0(),000.  At  that  time  Nevada  alone  pro- 
duced inoic  gold  and  silver  tlian  all  the  rest  of  the  United  States. 
Viiginia  City  prospered,  althougli  its  food,  timber,  and  other  sup- 
plies had  to  be  hauk'd  up  sleep  mountain  roads  to  a  height  of  0200 
feet.  Although  the  town  lias  lately  i-cvived  somewhat  because  of 
the  consolidation  of  ])i'()perties  and  the  discoveiy-  of  more  ore,  Vir- 
ginia City  is  tyi)ical  of  what  happens  when  veins  of  precious  metals 
become  exhausted.     For  years  the  streets  were  almost  empty,  the 


172 


MAX'S   RELATION   TO   SOIL  AND   MINERALS 


METALS   AND   CIVILIZATION 


173 


174 


MANS  1{i:laiion  to  soil  and  minerals 


hotc^ls  l){)artl('(l  up.  most  of  the  houses  untciiiuitcd  and  falliiiu;  to  ruin, 
while  fine  schoolhous(>s  stootl  aljandoned. 

Economic  Importance  of  Gold  and  Silver. — Ahhou^li  gold  and 
silver  are  not  ono-thousantllh  as  useful  as  iron,  their  allraetivcn«*ss 
and  rarity  have  made  them  the  world's  sttmdard  of  value.  In  1800 
A.i).  a  ])iece  of  a  <iiv(Mi  size  would  ])urchase  almost  as  nmch  wheat, 
barley,  or  milk  as  had  been  the  case  centuries  earlier.  Then  the 
invention  of  the  steam  engine  enabled  civilized  man  to  travel  easily 
to  all  parts  of  the  earth  and  to  discover  many  new  mineral  deposits. 
Moreover,  the  use  of  machinery  and  the  invention  of  im])r()ved  proc- 
esses for  extracting   the  metals  so  cheapened   gold   and  especially 

Dollars  15QQ  ^p  j^qq  j^qq  1800 1900 

BOO.OOO.OOOU'  "  '  i  I  '  '  '  I  I  I  I  M  11  i  '  II 11  iiU  '  1 1 1'lij  J 11 1 1  I  ui  I J I  1 1  1 1  i  1 1  I  ji  !  1 1  I  iJ  1 1 1  in  I  j  ■  I  11  I '  II  1 1 1  '■ 


400,000,000 


300,000,000  - 


200,000,000 


100,000,000  - 


Fig.  5L — Production  of  Oold  for  Four  Centuries.     Annual  Averages  for  Periods 

of  5  to  20  vears. 


silver  that  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  most  of  the 
great  countries  ceased  to  use  silver  as  a  standard  of  monej'.  In  1914 
the  price  of  silver  had  fallen  so  low  that  a  silver  dollar  when  nuvlted 
was  worth  less  than  half  a  dollar.  Silver  coins,  to  be  sure,  weri^  still 
used,  but  the  silver  in  them  was  not  worth  its  face  value.  Thus  gold 
became  the  single  standard  of  value  in  practically  all  parts  of  the  civil- 
ized world. 

Gold  Supply  and  the  Increased  Cost  of  Living. — The  fact  that 
gold  is  the  sole  standard  of  \  aJue  causes  great  trouble,  for  man  is  still 
exploring  new  regions  and  discovering  new  sup])lies.  At  the  same  time 
he  is  also  inventing  easier  ways  of  recoA-ering  the  mental  from  1  he  rcK'ks. 
Both  the  discoveries  and  the  inventions  tend  to  dec  reast"  the  a  .alue  of 
the  metal.     Figs.  51  and  52  show  how  the  jjioduction  of  gold  has 


METALS  AND    CIVILIZATION 


175 


varied.  The  ten-fold  increase  between  1850  and  1855  was  duo  to 
the  discovery  of  great  deposits  in  Cahfornia  and  Australia.  After 
that  there  was  almost  enough  gold  to  serve  as  money  everywhere. 
Of  course  in  most  countries  the  gold  itself  does  not  circulate,  but  is 
kept  in  reserve  by  the  government  and  is  represented  by  paper 
money  which  can  at  any  time  be  exchanged  for  gold. 

o 

Dollars  2 2 2  2  S  2  S  DoIlaTS 

500.000.000L'  M  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  )  I  1  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  M  I  I  I  M  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  lSOO.000,000 


400,000,000 


300,000,000  - 


400,000,000 


:oo.ooo,ooo 


1""k;.  .")2. — \\'()rl{l  I'roduction  of  (lold  aiul  Silver  Since  ISlU), 


From  1855  to  1890  gold  production  changed  littk'.  Then  geo- 
graphical discoveries  opened  enormous  new  fields  in  Alaska,  Austraha, 
and  es])ecially  South  Africa.  The  supjily  of  gold  increased  about 
five-fold  in  thirty  years.  At  the  same  tinu^  the  cyanide  process 
made  it  possible  to  use  low-grade  ores  that  previously  were  consid- 
ered valueless,  (lold  became  so  common  that  its  value  fell  greatly. 
Hence  a  dollar  that  would  previously  purchase  two  bushels  of  wheat 
would  purchase  only  one,  and  an  income  of  $1000  would  buy  only 


176  M.ws  in:r.\Ti(»\  to  sott.  axd  mt\f,t? al^? 

as  much  as  SoOO  a  few  decades  earlier.  Thus  even  before  the  rise  in 
]-)nces  due  to  tlie  (Jn^at  War  the  cost  of  hvinfj;  kept  <:oiii<r  up,  whicli 
means  in  lartje  ))ail  thai  llic  Aaliic  of  uold  went  down. 

Why  New  Discoveries  May  be  a  Disadvantage. — The  same 
ti'(iul)l('  will  ))rol)al)ly  icapprai'  in  the  future,  for  jieofiraphical  (hs- 
(•(ivery  and  the  iniprovcnicnt  of  mininfr  processes  and  ti'ans})<)itat ion 
have  by  no  means  reached  their  limits.*  Western  China,  Tibet, 
Afjihanistan,  and  especially  northeastern  Siberia  contain  vast 
amounts  of  gold,  which  will  be  exploited  when  railroads  In-ing  those 
repons  into  close  contact  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  In  South 
Africa  the  AVitwatei-s  field  alone  is  believed  to  contain  from  ten  to 
twenty  l)illion  dollai"s'  worth  of  g,o\d.  The  increased  ])i-oiluction  of 
gokl  l)enefits  a  few  people,  but  for  the  majority  it  merely  helps  increase 
the  cost  of  livinp;.  In  this  it  joins  with  short  hoin-s,  poor  work,  heavy 
taxes,  and  the  effects  of  war.  So  much  trouble  arises  from  changes  in 
the  value  of  gold  that  many  economists  think  it  should  be  given  up 
as  the  standard  of  value.  They  advocate  a  new  standard  based  on 
goods  of  all  kinds  and  so  framed  that  a  dollar  will  buy  just  as  nmch 
food,  cloth,  iron,  coal,  or  otlun-  necessities  in  one  year  as  in  another. 

Remarkable  Nature  of  Iron. — If  all  the  gold  in  the  world  should 
be  dcsti-()>('d  man's  activity  would  go  on  almost  unchanged,  but  i' 
iron  should  be  taken  away,  it  would  \)v  enormously  moic  dillicult 
than  at  present  to  maintain  our  material  civilization. 

Why  is  iron  used  so  universally?  Is  it  Ijccausc  iron  is  the  most 
common  metal?  No,  for  the  earth's  crust  contains  about  8.2  parts 
of  ahmiinum  out  of  a  hundred,  and  only  4.6  of  iron.  ]\Ioreover,  such 
metals  as  calcium  (3.5  parts),  magnesium  (2.6  jxirts),  sodium  (2.6 
parts)  and  potassimn  (2.4  parts),  are  only  a  little  less  abundant  than 
iron,  but  are  not  used  one-thousandth  as  nuich.  Is  the  univei-sal  use 
of  iron  due  to  the  ease  with  which  the  metal  can  be  se])arated  from 
its  ores?  Partly,  but  cop])er  can  ))e  se])arate<l  still  more  easily,  and 
zinc  with  almost  equal  ease. 

The  chief  reason  for  the  unixersal  use  of  ii'on  is  its  ])('ciiliai'  prop- 
erties, especially  (1)  its  capacity  for  assuming  many  different  forms, 
(2)  its  strength,  (8)  its  hardness,  (4)  its  ductility  or  capacity  for  being 
drawn  into  wiic,  and  (">)  its  magnetic  pro]ieities.  l^ecausc  of  tlu^se 
quahties  iron  is  the  universal  material  foi'  tools  and  machines,  and  thus 
l)ecf)mes  one  of  i]\r  most  im]X)rtant  factors  in  jjromoting  civilization. 

How  Man  Has  Attained  the  Iron  Age. — Since  iion  is  so  important 
it    is  not  strange   thai    the  jx'riod   in  w  liich  we  li\-e  is  known  as  the 

*  DuriiiR  and  after  flic  (!n^!it  War  tlic  production  of  t^old  declined  and  i)rices 
fluctuatefl  for  other  reasons.  When  eoiiditioiis  a^ain  l)eeonie  stable,  however, 
the  old  conditions  are  likelv  to  revive  unless  some  mw  factor  infervi-nes. 


METALS  AND   CIVILIZATION  177 

Iron  Age.  The  earliest  men  lived  in  what  is  known  as  the  Stone 
Age.  Their  only  tools  were  made  of  stone  or  sometimes  of  bone. 
Ordinary  stones  of  almost  any  kind  were  used  for  hammers  or  as 
weapons  to  throw  when  hvmting  game,  bat  only  flint  and  a  volcanic 
glass  called  "obsidian"  could  be  easily  cliipped  to  a  cutting  edge. 
But  what  is  such  an  edge  compared  with  the  edge  of  a  razor.  Peo- 
ple with  such  tools  are  greatly  hampered  in  the  advance  toward 
civiUzation, 

When  primitive  people  discovered  that  copper  could  readily  be 
hammered  into  tools,  the  Copper  Age  began.  It  was  not  greatly 
different  from  the  Stone  Age,  however,  for  copper  is  so  soft  and  pliable 
that  tools  made  from  it  can  never  be  given  an  edge  that  will  last. 
In  tune  it  was  discovered  that  if  a  httle  tin  is  melted  with  copper  a 
material  called  bronze  is  produced.  This  is  harder  than  copper  and 
makes  better  tools.  This  discovery  gave  rise  to  the  Bronze  Age. 
The  new  metal  helped  mankind  to  advance,  but  it  did  not  surpass 
copper  sufficiently  to  cause  a  pronounced  change  in  civilization. 

Not  till  men  learned  to  smelt  iron  did  there  come  a  radical  change. 
Since  then,  during  the  two  or  three  thousand  years  of  the  Iroji  Age, 
the  strength  and  hardness  of  iron  tools  have  enabled  us  to  clear  the 
forests,  plow  the  sod,  dig  deep  mines,  and  construct  railroads,  steam- 
ships, and  all  kinds  of  machinery.  Within  the  last  half  century  the 
increasing  use  of  iron  in  its  strongest  and  hardest  form  has  brought  us 
into  the  Steel  Age,  a  new  stage  of  the  Iron  Age.  In  1870  the  United 
States  produced  1,665,000  tons  of  pig  iron,  only  4  per  cent  of  which, 
or  alx)ut  70,000  tons,  was  used  for  steel.  In  1900  the  output  of  steel 
had  increased  to  10,000,000  tons,  in  1905  to  20,000,000,  in  1913  to 
32,000,000,  and  in  1918,  at  the  climax  of  the  Great  War,  to  50,000,000. 

The  utilization  of  the  magnetic  properties  of  iron  has  enabled  man 
to  enter  upon  a  still  more  advanced  stage  of  the  Iron  Age,  the  Age 
of  Electricity.  As  lately  as  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  the 
only  practical  use  of  the  electro-magnetic  power  of  iron  was  in  the 
compass.  To-day  we  depend  upon  electricity  not  only  for  lighting, 
transportation,  and  communication,  but  also  for  the  transmission  of 
power  from  waterfalls,  for  motive  power  in  factories,. and  for  a  host 
of  other  uses.  Even  now  the  full  possibilities  of  the  magnetic  prop- 
erti(^s  of  iron  are  only  beginning  to  be  n^alizcd. 

Scanty  Iron  Deposits  and  the  Character  of  Early  Civilization. — 
One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  differences  between  the  ancient  civi- 
lization of  Egj-pt,  Palestine,  Mesopotamia,  (Ireece,  and  Rom(\  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  modei-n  civilization  of  Western  Eiuope  and 
the  Ignited  States,  on  the  oth(T,  is  the  amount  of  iron  avaihible  for 
everyday   use.     In   i)hascs  of   civilization   such   as   art,   literature, 


178 


.MANS    UELATlUN    TU   SUIL   AMJ    MINERALS 


philosopliy,  rclipon,  and  povorninont,  in  wliich  niinoral  rosourccg 
pUiy  (inly  a  small  ])art,  the  pco])!^  of  ;uici(>nt  times  made  p-(\il.  prog- 
ress, and  in  many  ways  excelled  tiie  nations  of  to-day.  In  other 
phases  sueh  as  manufaeturinfi,  trans])oitation,  eonnneire,  and  min- 
ing, where  complex  maeliiiuMy  plays  an  important  jiart,  they  made 
little  progress  and  were  in  about  the  same  stage  as  nations  like  modern 
China.  This  difference  was  due  largely  to  the  degive  of  availability 
of  suppUes  of  iron  (see  Fig.  53). 

Iron  ores  do  not  occur  in  plains  like  those  of  Egypt,  Mesopotamia, 
northern  India,  eastern  China,  and  Guatemala,  whcMe  the  world's 
earliest  civilizations  grew  up.    Nor  are  such  (jres  alnnidant  and  easily 


Fig.  53. — Distribution   of  Iron   Ore. 


obtained  in  limestone  countries  like  Syria  and  Greece.  Italy  also 
has  only  a  little  iron,  and  most  of  that  comes  from  the  island  of  I'Jba. 
'ilnis  practically  all  of  tlu^  great  countries  of  anticjuity  are  deficient 
in  natural  sii])])li<'s  of  iron.  Moreover,  in  those  countries  and  also  in 
some  outlying  regions  such  as  Asia  ]\Iinor  and  the  Libyan  Desert 
where  ore  is  found,  there  are  coniparat.ively  few  trees,  and  thus  the 
smelting  of  iron  was  greatly  limited.  \\'itli  (heir  small  availai)lc 
su])])ly  of  iron  the  civilized  ]K>oi)le  of  early  times  made  only  such 
small  tools  as  knives,  hoes,  and  weapons.  Sim]ile  machines  such  as 
the  steam  engine  of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  130  n.c,  and  tlic  hand  loom 
which  was  wi<lely  used,  had  inde(>d  been  invented,  but  could  not  be 
extensively  develo]ied  for  lack  of  iron. 

Abundant  Iron  Deposits  and  the  Character  of  Modem  Civiliza- 
tion.— Modern  (•i\ilizati()n,  unlike  ancient ,  is  located  in  regions  where 


METALS   AND   CIVILIZATION  179" 

it  is  easy  to  procure  both  iron  and  the  fuel  to  smelt  it.  The  most 
energetic  races  dwell  in  countries  such  as  northern  Spain,  France, 
Belgium,  Germany,  England,  and  Sweden,  which  contain  abundant 
iron  ores  and  are  naturally  covered  with  heavy  forests.  Hence  when 
these  regions  emerged  from  barbarism  the  use  of  iron  increased. 
People  were  able  to  use  it  freely  for  such  purposes  as  armor,  nails, 
and  plows,  for  which  it  had  previously  been  too  expensive.  In  the 
days  of  Queen  EUzabeth  the  demand  for  iron  became  so  great  that 
laws  had  to  be  passed  to  prevent  the  forests  from  being  wholly  con- 
sumed as  fuel  in  iron  furnaces. 

At  this  stage  another  geogi-aphical  condition  became  important. 
England,  northern  France,  Belgimn,  and  Germany  contain  great 
deposits  of  coal  located  close  to  the  iron  ore.  In  England,  soon  after 
1600  A.D.,  people  discovered  that  by  converting  coal  into  coke  they 
could  use  it  for  smelting.  The  rapid  adoption  of  this  method  so 
increased  the  available  supply  of  iron  that  such  large  machines  as  the 
steam  engine  could  be  turned  out  in  large  numbere.  The  abihty  of 
modern  civilization  to  use  iron  for  tools  and  machinery  is  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  the  contrast  between  ancient  civilization  with  its 
emphasis  on  art,  literature,  philosophy,  religion,  and  government  and 
modern  civilization  with  its  emphasis  on  science,  on  man's  material 
betterment,  and  on  the  use  of  natural  resources  through  manufactur- 
ing, transportation,  conmierce,  and  mining.  The  great  civilization  of 
the  future  will  place  equal  emphasis  on  the  idealism  of  the  ancients 
and  the  inaterialisni  of  the  pi'osent. 

Where  Iron.  Ore  is  Most  Favorably  Located. — Countries  like 
the  United  States,  England,  Germany,  and  France,  where  coal  and 
iron  are  both  abundant,  have  a  tremendous  advantage.  Countries 
like  Sweden  and  Spain,  which  have  plenty  of  ore  but  little  coal  lose 
much  of  this  advantage.  They  have  to  send  the  ore  to  places,  Uke 
England  and  Germany,  well  supphed  with  fuel.  This  is  cheaper 
than  to  take  the  coal  to  the  ore,  for  two  tons  of  coal  are  needed 
to  smelt  a  ton  of  iron  ore. 

Our  own  country  is  particularly  favored  because  it  has  enormous 
deposits  of  both  coal  and  iron.  They  are,  to  be  sure,  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  one  another,  for  the  largest  coal  beds  center  in  Penn- 
sylvania, while  the  best  and  largest  iron  deposits  are  in  the  Lake 
Superior  region.  For  most  of  the  distance  between  the  two,  however, 
there  is  cheap  transportation  by  the  waterway  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  the  ore  can  easily  be  carried  to  the  fuel.  Moreover,  the  coal  is 
near  the  center  of  the  great  market  of  the  northeastern  United  States, 
so  that  after  the  ore  is  made  into  iron  it  does  not  have  to  travel  far 
before  being  used.     During  the  first  part  of  the  ( Ircat  War,  \vliil(>  the 


180 


MANS    H1:LATI()X   to   soil-   AM)    MIXKRALS 


other  p'oat  iron-producinp;  countrios  wore  fi^htiiip;,  the  use  of  iron  in 
Anierica  increased  as  iicvit  Ix'fore.  Tiie  excellence  of  both  the  coal 
and  the  ore  in  the  United  States  will  ijrobably  hel]i  the  country  to 
maintain  tiie  leadei*ship  in  the  iron  industry  whicii  it  then  ol)tained. 
Over  90  pi'r  cent  of  tiie  world's  aiunial  ])n)duc.ti()n  of  1,700. ()()().()()() 
tons  of  minerals  consists  of  coal  and  lion  and  a  third  of  this  is  mined 
ill  the  United  States  (see  Fijr.  .")!). 

The  United  States  Steel  Corporation. — Since  iron  is  (he  most 
important  of  the  materials  used  in  niamitacturiiiti..  it  has  led  to  in- 
dustrial comliinations  of  enormous  size.  Tlic  (Ii'cal  ( lerman  Steel 
( 'om])ine  controls  ])ra('ti("i]ly  the  entire  steel  business  in  ( !(>rmany  and 
was    lony;    t.he    lai'iiest,     business    combination     outside    the    I'nit.ed 


l""i<;.  rA. — I'rodiictidii  of  Inm 


States.  The  United  States  Steel  (  Orjioration.  however,  is  even 
larjrer.  It  has  r(\ache(l  its  present  size  b(>cause  economy  demands  that 
a  jiTcat  nuinlxM'  of  o])erations  in  se\'(>ra,l  diCfei'eiit  ])laces  should  be 
])erConne(l  undei'  one  manaticmenl .  In  ]iroducinii'  iiiu;  iron  it  is  neces- 
sary first  to  ha^•e  ji,reat  ore  beds  in  the  bake  Superior  district  or  else- 
where. Next  the  ore  nmst  be  carried  by  lak(>  and  rail  to  the  vicinity  of 
the  coal  mines  in  Pennsylvania.  Coal  must  be  mined  and  converted 
into  coke  and  then  broujjht  to  the  factory,  while  limestone  must  also 
\xi  quarried.  When  a  sin}i;le  company  owns  mines,  quarries,  steam- 
boats, railroads,  coke  ovens,  and  factories  it  saves  a  great  amount  of 
wjiste  and  a  large  nund)er  of  profits  which  would  go  to  the  juiddle  man 
if  the  various  raw  materials  and  half-finished  jjroducts  changed  hands 
after  each   o])efa,1  imi. 

Because  of  such   advantages  the  Unit.ed  States  Steel   Corpora- 


METALS  AND   CIVILIZATION  181 

tion  to-day  controls  more  than  half  the  steel  business  of  the  United 
States.  It  employs  over  250,000  men  distributed  from  Alabama  to 
Lake  Superior  and  from  Peimsylvania  to  Colorado.  Its  150  s^'i'at 
manufacturing  plants,  its  130  iron  mines,  its  750,000  acres  of  coal 
lands,  its  1300  miles  of  railway,  1400  engines,  60,000  freight  cars  and 
its  100  steamers,  together  with  its  docks,  Hmestone  (juarries,  gas  wells, 
and  oil  wells,  are  worth  two  billion  dollars,  and  yield  a  profit  of 
between  one  and  two  hundred  million  dollars  each  year.  A  part, 
but  by  no  means  the  greater  part  of  the  i^rofits  has  come  back  to 
the  public.  For  instance,  Andrew  Carnegie,  for  a  long  time  the 
largest  stockholder  of  the  Corporation,  gave  not  far  from  $350,000,000 
for  }:)ublic  use  in  libraries,  scientific  organizations,  educational  insti- 
tutions, and  many  other  forms.  This  is  the  only  rigiit  course,  for 
the  profits  of  all  such  industries,  although  due  in  part  to  wise  man- 
agement, are  also  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  our  laws  permit  ]irivate 
individuals  to  ol)tain  control  of  valuable  natural  resources  like  coal 
and  iron. 

How  Copper  Influences  Human  Progress. — After  the  time 
when  iron  tools  came  into  use  at  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age  copper 
played  a  minor  role,  its  chief  use  being  for  cooking  vessels.  Within  the 
last  half  century,  however,  copper  has  again  become  important,  for 
the  world  has  learned  to  use  electricity.  Among  all  the  conunon 
substances  copper  is  the  best  electrical  conductoi',  therefore  no  power 
plant,  electric  light  plant,  telephone,  telegraph,  or  autoniol>ile  is  made 
without  copper.  In  California  and  elsewhere  cop])er  wire  now 
makes  it  possi])le  to  transmit  electric  power  400  to  500  miles.  The 
need  of  good  electrical  conductoi"s  is  growing  so  ra])idly  that  to-day 
copper  is  the  most  important  of  all  metals  after  iron.  Eight  tinn^s 
as  much  coppcn-  was  ])roduced  in  1910  as  in  1880,  and  there  has  biHMi  a 
steady  increase  in  more  recent  ycai"S.  In  1913  the  world's  production 
was  over  a  million  tons. 

Copper  Production  of  the  United  States. — The  United  Statics  dom- 
inates the  copper  situation,  for  it  produces  more  than  half  of  the 
woild's  supply.  It  is  the  oidy  great  industiial  couIltIy^  asi(l(>  from 
Japan,  that  has  large  copper  mines.  The  American  supply  formerly 
came  largely  from  the  Upi)er  Peninsula  of  Michigan.  Oddly  enough 
the  fact  that  the  ore 'tliei'e  often  occurs  in  large  pieces  of  pure  metal  is  a 
disadvantage.  C()])])er  ore  can  be  smelted  more  easily  than  pure 
cop]ier  can  be  dug  out,  for  the  metal  is  so  ductile  that  it  caimot  be 
broken  by  blasting.  Arizona  and  jNIontana  are  now  the  cliit'f  <-o])])('r 
States. 

The  Character  of  a  Copper  Town. — The  dtMuand  for  (•o])])('r  has 
led  to  the  growth  of  many  cities  such  as  Butte,  Montana,  and  Pisbec, 


182 


MAX'S    HKI.ATIOX   T(^   SOTT,    AND    MINERALS 


Arizona.  The  surrounclinp;  rcpjions  have  l)ccn  thoroup;hly  prospected 
and  tlio  coppor  industiy  has  assumed  a  permanent  aspect.  Hence 
the  towns  have  lost  man}'  of  the  bad  qualities  of  the  "  boom"  towns 


Fig.  rvi. — Distri])uti(in   of  Coi)j)or  Ores. 

which  p^'ow  u]!  whevc  the  ])r(M'ious  metals  are  mined.     A  man  may 
settle  in  a  copper  mininji;  town  with  the  idea  of  staying  there  for  life. 


l''i<;.  .')(■). — I'roductioii  df  Copper. 


The  cliicf  (lr;i\\  l):i.(k  is  that  luiuini!:  is  ;i  hard,  disagreeable  occU]iati()n. 
Aside  froiii  llio  skilled  su])criiit('iid('nts,  engineeix,  and  foremen,  it 
usually  attracts  only  the  ixjorcst.  kind  of  labor.     Moreover,  most  of 


METALS   AND   CIVILIZATION  183 

the  copper  mines  are  not  located  in  agreeable  surroundings,  for  the 
bare  deserts  of  the  region  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  less 
attractive  than  the  more  fertile  regions  eiscnvhere.  Another  draw- 
back is  that  the  smelting  of  copper  ore  fills  the  air  with  vast  clouds  of 
sulphur,  for  many  of  the  best  ores  are  a  combination  of  copper  and 
sulphur.  At  Butte,  Montana,  and  at  other  ])]aces,  the  sulphurous 
smoke  is  carried  to  h(ught;;  of  four  or  five  hundred  feet  in  great  chim- 
neys. Yet  it  settles  down  in  such  volume  that  not  a  tree  can  grow 
within  miles  of  the  smelters.  Such  conditions  often  drive  capable 
people  away  from  the  mining  towns,  and  thus  retard  their  progi-ess. 

Copper  in  Other  Countries. — -The  other  countries  where  copper  is 
abundant  are  Chile,  Japan,  Spain,  Mexico,  and  Australia,  in  the 
order  named.  The  Chuquicamata  deposits  in  Chile,  owned  by  an 
American  corpoi'ation,  are  by  far  the  largest  in  the  world.  Copper 
is  one  of  Japan's  chief  metal  products,  but  her  total  production  is 
only  about  one-eighth  that  of  the  United  States.  Aside  from  Spain 
the  countries  of  Europe  have  little  copper.  In  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
and  Asia  Minor  supplies  are  reported,  but  are  not  extensively  worked. 
Germany's  inabihty  to  get  copper  during  the  Great  War  was  a  great 
handicap.  Ordinarily  that  country  produces  only  26,000  tons  a 
year  and  consumes  about  260,000  tons.  During  the  War  her 
need  was  vastly  increased.  The  government  requisitioned  (>very 
available  bit  of  copper,  including  trolley  wires,  electric  light  fixtures, 
faucets,  old  teapots  handed  down  for  generations,  and  the  very 
roofs  and  bells  from  the  churches.  Even  the  Emperor's  palace 
was  not  spared,  and  attempts  were  made  to  bu}'  up  the  copjier 
coins  of  other  countries  such  as  Norway,  Swed(>n,  and  Switzerland. 

Aluminum. — The  light  metal  known  as  aluniiiium  is  a  compara- 
tive newcomer.  Not  till  about  1910  was  it  sold  at  such  a  price  that 
it  could  be  used  like  iron  and  copper  for  ordinary  purposes.  Its 
uses  lie  between  those  of  tlu^  other  two  metals.  Pound  for  pound  it 
surpasses  copper  as  an  electi-ical  conductor,  but  cannot  so  easily  be 
made  into  wire  that  will  not  1)reak.  It  is  harder  than  copper,  how- 
ever, and  hence  in  automobiles  and  especially  airplanes  it  can  be 
used  for  parts  like  the  oil  pan  of  the  engine,  where  the  strength  of 
iron  is  not  required  and  where  lightness  is  desirable. 

Luckily  aluminum  is  contained  in  common  clay  and  in  a  great 
numb(>r  of  rocks,  so  that  the  supply  is  practically  imlimit(Ml.  The 
chief  drawback  is  that  to  extract  it  from  the  or(^s  strong  electric 
currents  are  required.  Therefore  the  gi-(>at  aluiiiinuin  ])lants  are 
located  where  the  ore  occurs  near  powerful  wali'rfall.^  such  as  those 
of  SchiUThauseii,  Switzei'Iaiid,  and  Niagara  I'alls.  Savoy  in  l-'rancc 
and  the  nioiiiil aiiioii^^  \)()rti()ns  of  Germany  and   Italy  are  also    (he 


184 


MAX  S    KliLATlUN    TO   bUlL  AND    MINERALS 


seat  of  alumimiin  factories.  If  ])o\v(>r  could  \h'  obtained  rhoaply 
piiouiih,  Mluniiiiiiin  would  soon  be  used  nioi-e  than  any  metal  except 
iron.     '11 K'  towns  where  it  is  made  arc  n\)\  to  l)c  located  in  pleasant 


KiG.  57. — Production  of  the  World's  Lead  .Supply. 


parts  of  the  country,  for  that  is  where  the  water-])Ower  is-  found. 
They  do  not  have  a  lar'>;e  body  of  low-<;Tade  labonTs  workinji;  under- 
ground, for  the  ore  is  taken  from  open  ciuarries  reciuirin^-  relatively 


I'lii.  ."J.s.     rroducliou  ol"  the  W'orld'.s  Zinc  .Sup])i\'. 

little  l:d)oi'.     ]\Ioreovei",  the  amount  of  machinery  and  of  skilled 
re<[uire<l  in   the  ])roduction  of  aluminum  is  unusually  lar^'e. 
gcther  aliniiiiiuiii  has  a  larii'c  number  of  fa\(ii-able  characteristics 
effects  on  man. 


work 
Alto- 
in  its 


METALS  AND   CIVILIZATION  185 

Why  We  Need  to  Conserve  our  Mineral  Deposits. — Minerals  far 
more  than  forests  need  to  1)C  carefully  consci-\'ecl.  Forests  will  gi'ow 
again,  but  when  minerals  have  once  been  destroyed  they  can  never 
be  replaced.  Among  the  metals  discussed  in  this  chapter  gold  and 
silver  are  consen-ed  with  great  care,  for  eveiyone  is  car(;ful  not  to  lose 
the  smallest  bit  of  either.  Yet  they  need  to  be  consei-\'ed  far  less 
than  the  other  metals,  for  they  play  httlc  part  in  the  world's  \\ork. 
Iron  plays  so  great  a  part  that  our  supplies  of  that  metal  are  our 
most  important  mineral  resource.  As  yet,  however,  they  have  not 
been  seriously  diminished,  for  there  are  vast  quantities  of  low-grade 
ores.  Aluminum  is  fortunately  far  more  abundant  than  iron,  and  the 
supplies  have  as  yet  scarcely  been  touched.  With  copper  the  case  is 
far  more  pressing.  Its  use  is  constantly  growing,  while  the  supplies 
are  rapidly  being  exhausted.  The  same  is  true  of  many  minor  min- 
erals, such  as  zinc,  lead,  phosphates,  and  tin.  If  they  are  once 
exhausted  many  of  our  industries  will  suffer  seriously,  and  future 
generations  will  wonder  how  wo  could  have  been  so  careless. 


QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  How  do  you  explain  the  lack  of  mining  in  Denmark?     In  Florida? 

2.  Why  are  swindles  so  easily  made  with  mining  stock? 

3.  Why  is  iron  more  precious  to  man  than  the  "precious  metals,"  gold,  and 
silver? 

4.  What  effect  would  it  have  on  prices  if  no  new  gold  mines  were  to  be  opened 
for  several  decades? 

5.  How  does  it  happen  that  the  world's  largest  business  combination  is  one 
that  deals  with  iron  rather  than  any  other  material? 

6.  How  does  the  control  of  the  chief  metals  by  English-speaking  countries 
strengthen  their  international  i)osition? 

Put  this  in  the  form  of  a  problem. — Make  a  list  of  six  to  eight  chief  producers  of 
iron,  copper,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  aluminum,  gold,  silver,  platinum,  mercur\-,  antimony, 
bismuth,  nickel,  and  radium.  How  do  the  United  States  and  the  liriti.sh  Em- 
pire compare  in  this  respect?  What  nation  or  group  of  nations  having  the  same 
speech  comes  second  in  controlling  metals?  How  do  the  metals  that  they  control 
compare  in  importance  with  those  controlled  by  the  English-speaking  people? 

7.  Point  out  which  of  tlu<  following  are  desirable  in  order  to  conserve  our 
natural    resources : 

(a)  The  building  of  ships  and  bridges  with  rc-inforced  concrete  instead  of 
wood  or  steel. 

(b)  The  use  of  alumiiumi  instead  of  copi)er  in  pots,  kettles,  and  electrical 
machinery. 

(c)  The  substitution  of  steel  passenger  and  freight  cars  for  tho.se  of  wood. 

{(I)  The  use  of  aluminum  iu  many  i^arts  of  automobiles  and  airplanes  in  place 
of  steel. 


CTTAPTKR  TX 
THE  SOURCES  OF  POWER 

Importance  of  Power.^ — In  the  i)itsimi1  A^v  of  Steel  and  ]]lectricity 
all  sources  of  power  have  assumed  a  now  and  increasing  importance. 
The  manufacturer  needs  po\v(T  to  drive  his  machinery,  to  ])riii<f  raw 
materials,  and  to  cany  liis  finished  products  to  market.  TIk^  mer- 
chant needs  power  to  run  his  elevator,  and  su])])ly  liini  wilh  light. 
The  farmer  needs  it.  to  plow  his  fields,  saw  his  wood,  shar]X'n  his 
scythes,  chiu-n  his  l)utter,  and  cany  his  crops  to  market.  You  j'oiu'- 
self  need  power  to  light  your  home,  to  cany  you  on  journeys,  and  to 
bring  you  letters  and  suiii)lies.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  eveiyonc  in 
a  civilized  conununity  uses  i)ower  either  dircn-tly  or  indirectly.  Farms, 
transportation  systems,  and  factories,  however,  are  the  greatest 
users  of  power.  Hence  in  this  chapter  we  shall  think  particularly  of 
their  needs  in  considering  the  seven  great  sources  of  power  (1)  man's 
own  body,  (2)  animals,  (3)  wind,  (4)  water,  (5)  wood,  (6)  coal,  and 
(7)  petroleum. 

Kinds  of  Power. — (1)  Man. — The  oldest  and  most  connnon  source 
of  power  is  the  energy  of  ??m?;'.s  hocli/.  He  uses  it  to  raise  food,  build 
houses,  carry  loads,  and  wield  the  ax.  He  also  uses  it  for  manu- 
factures such  as  the  woolen  rugs  of  the  Ivhirghiz  and  the  carved  toj-s 
of  the  Swiss. 

In  tro]Mcal  countries  man's  strength  is  the  chief  source  oi  power. 
For  instance  in  India,  Africa,  and  tro]iical  South  America  l(Mig  lines 
of  coolies  trudge  hundreds  of  miles  through  jungle  and  swam])  weighed 
down  wit.h  heavy  loads  on  their  heads  or  backs.  In  ("liina  some 
device  like  a  wheelban"ow  is  usually  used  to  aid  man's  strtMigth  in 
carrying  both  goods  and  ])eople;  aiid  in  .Inpan  the  jimil\isha  serves 
the  same  ])Ui-])ose  to  bett.er  eiYect.  in  tlu'  most  advanced  countries, 
although  millions  of  men  furnish  ])ower  for  traiis]K)rtation,  unlike  the 
coolie,  they  ti-aiis])()rt  llieir  loads  only  short  distances,  as  in  carrying 
})ricks  and  mortal',  loading  boxes  into  wagons,  and  lifting  leather  into 
cutting  machines.  In  our  own  country  man's  bodily  ixjwer  is  used 
less  than  anywhere  else,  since  i;s  place  is  taken  liy  so  many  devices 
such  as  elevators  and  electric  trucks. 

(2)  AiiitiKils. — Since  man's  own  strength  is  not  sufhcicMit  to  ac- 
complish all  his  anibilious  ijjans,  he  long  ago  obtained  ol.iicr  sources 

1S6 


THE  SOURCES   OF   POWER  187 

of  power  by  taming  the  horse,  donkey,  ox,  camel,  water  buffalo,  ele- 
phant, yak,  llama,  and  reindeer.  His  use  of  one  or  another  of  these 
animals,  quite  unlike  his  use  of  his  own  strength,  is  least  in  tropical 
countries  and  greatest  in  the  most  advanced  parts  of  the  world. 

In  tropical  countries  animals  are  little  used  for  two  chief  reasons: 
(a)  The  people  are  not  energetic  and  intelligent  enough  to  take  good 
care  of  their  animals.  (6)  The  most  useful  animals  like  the  horse 
and  ox  do  not  thrive  in  tropical  countries  because  of  the  poor  grass 
and  pestering  insects.  The  fine  animals  introduced  by  the  United 
States  into  the  Philippines  deteriorate  rapidly  if  left  to  the  care  of  the 
natives. 

In  countries  like  Japan  and  eastern  China  horses  and  other  beasts 
of  l)urden  are  also  rare.  The  climate  is  not  favorable  to  gi-ass,  and 
the  places  where  food  for  animals  might  be  raised  are  needed  to  sup- 
ply food  for  the  dense  human  population.  In  dry,  grass}'  regions  like 
the  steppes  of  Central  Asia  and  our  o^^•n  ^^"este^n  States,  horses  and 
cattle  are  numerous,  for  there  is  much  land  that  is  good  for  grazing  and 
not  for  agriculture.  Nevertheless,  animals  are  not  used  for  power 
nearly  so  much  there  as  in  the  great  agricultural  regions  like  the 
eastern  United  States,  especially  Illinois  and  its  neighbors,  or  north- 
western Europe,  especially  northern  France  and  the  Low  Countries. 
In  such  places  horses  are  so  valuable  for  farm  work  that  their  number 
is  increasing  in  spite  of  the  increased  use  of  automobiles. 

(3)  How  Wind  Furnishes  Power. — The  sources  of  power  thus  far 
considered  demand  little  or  no  mechar.ical  skill.  The  use  of  wind, 
however,  demands  that  people  shall  b(^  invc^ntive  and  able  to  construct 
machijier}'.  Hence  windmills  are  imknown  within  the  tropics  except 
where  Europeans  or  Americans  have  introduced  them.  The  steady 
trade  winds,  however,  are  almost  ideal  for  wind-])ower.  Hence  in 
tropical  towns  like  ]\Ierida  in  Yucatan,  a  regular  forest  of  wiiuhnills 
may  be  seen,  since  most  of  the  65,000  people  use  water  punq^tMl  from 
caverns  and  streams  (Un^p  down  in  the  porous  linu^stone.  The  chief 
development  of  windmills,  however,  is  in  the  energetic  tem]ieratc 
zone.  In  level  open  regions  like  Holland,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa, 
where  the  winvl  blows  freely  and  stc^idily,  tlu>y  arc^  uschI  in  large  nuin- 
bei-s  to  ])ump  water  into  tanks,  and  to  cut  wood  and  fodder. 

Aside  from  windmills,  sails  are  the  chi(>f  method  of  using  the 
power  of  the  wind.  In  China  wh(>ell)arrows  as  well  as  shi]is  are  pro- 
IM'lled  in  this  way.  Although  wind-]iower  is  very  chea])  its  use  for 
ships  has  greatly  declined,  and  the  same  is  true  of  windmills.  In  1800 
all  ocean  vessels  were  ])ro])ellcd  by  the  wind,  for  steajnl)oats  were  still 
unknown.  In  1870  the  iiuml)er  of  vessels  of  the  two  kinds  in  Creat 
Britain  was  about  equal.     In   I'.U  1,  just  bcfori>  the  Creat  War,  the 


188  MAX'S   KELATloN    TO   SOIL   AM)    ML\J:1:ALS 

stoani  toniiafi(^  of  (Ircat  Brilain  was  ovor  twrnty  timos  as  larpp  as  the 
sailing  toniiajic  In  tlu>  United  States  the  steam  tonnage  is  now 
over  ten  times  as  large  as  the  other.  W'v  have  a  large  proportion 
of  sailing  vessels  l)ecaus(>  they  are  adapted  to  coastwise  trade,  which 
our  laws  encourage,  while  for  transoceanic  trade,  which  om'  laws  have 
rai*ely  encouragetl,  steam  vessels  are  aknost  universally  employed. 
Even  in  our  own  country,  however,  the  use  of  sailing  vessels  is  rapidly 
dechning. 

The  reason  for  the  (Iccliiic  in  the  use  of  wind-power  is  that  the  wind 
may  die  down  just  when  it  is  most  needed,  whereas  gasoline  and  other 
engines  have  l)ecome  more  and  more  reliable.  If  one  of  the  readers 
of  this  book  should  invent  a  cheap  stoi*age  battery,  it  would  enable 
the  ])ower  of  high  winds  to  ho  saved  for  times  when  there  is  no  wind. 
iSuch  an  invention  would  go  far  toward  solving  the  great  proljlcm  of 
how  the  world  shall  continue  to  have  cheap  ])()wer  when  such  fuels  as 
coal  and  petroleum  are  exhausted  or  have  risen  to  exorbitant  prices. 

(4)  Water  Power. — This  su])ject  is  considered  in  Chapter  \T,  on 
"Inland  Waters,"  and  should  be  reviewed  at  this  point. 

(5)  Wood  as  a  Source  of  Power. — The  sources  of  ]iower  thus  far 
considered  fall  into  two  great  tj^ies,  (a)  the  power  derived  from  li\ing 
beings,  including  both  animals  and  man,  and  (6)  that  deii\(Ml  from 
the  movement  of  air  and  water.  A\'e  must  now  consider  a  third 
t^-pe,  (c),  the  power  obtained  by  burning  fuel.  Fuel  may  be  burned 
slowly  as  in  a  fire  or  explosively  as  in  a  gasoline  engme.  The  three 
chief  foi'ms  of  fuel  are  wood,  coal,  and  petroleum.  I^et  us  see  what 
spcH'ial  geogi'aphical  conditions  cause  one  to  be  used  rather  than  the 
others. 

Although  wood  was  originally  of  great  importance  as  a  source  of 
power,  its  use  for  that  i)vu'pose  has  reached  a  low  ebb  in  more  advanced 
regions. 

Ill  such  regions  trans])()rtation  systems  and  farmei-s  almost  never 
use  wood  lor  power,  and  factories  use  it  only  for  special  reasons. 
Furniture  factories  have  such  a  reason  because  they  can  use  their  own 
sawdust,  shavings,  and  chips. 

Again  at  the  Swedish  iron  works  at  Danjiejnora  iron  ore  is  smelted 
with  wood  in  the  form  of  charcoal.  This  is  ])artly  because  the 
surroimding  fon'sts  fm'nish  a  vast  su])i)ly  of  wood,  but  chietly  because 
certain  of  the  finest  gi'ades  of  tool  steel  can  be  niade  only  with  char- 
coal. 

In  backward  regions  which  comprise  more  than  half  the  earth's 
habitable  suiiace,  wo(jd  is  still  the  chief  source  of  ])owi>r.  "^rhis  is  the 
case  chiefly  in  heavily  forested  regions,  or  else  in  backward  countries 
where  the  di(ii<'ultics  of  ti-ansi)or1ation  m:ik-v'  coal  un<lu!y  expensive. 


THE  SOURCES  OF  POWER  189 

In  the  vast  forested  plains  of  northern  Russia  and  Siberia,  for  example 
the  g;i'eat  piles  of  cordwood  that  one  sees  stacked  up  Iw^side  the  rail- 
ways are  fed  into  the  locomotives  and  produce  a  shower  of  sparks 
equal  to  a  Fourth  of  July  celeliration.  In  tropical  rej^ions,  too,  the 
river  steamers  often  stoji  for  hours  on  the  eilge  of  the  forest  to  let  a 
crowd  of  half-naked  black  men  throw  sticks  of  firewood  upon  the 
deck. 

In  such  backward  regions  the  factories  as  well  as  the  transporta- 
tion S3'stems  commonly  use  wood  for  fuel.  Both  in  nuniber  and  sizej 
however,  the  factories  that  use  wood  are  insignificant.  For  instance, 
in  tropical  coinitri(^s  the  scattered  little  sugar  mills,  hemp  factories, 
canning  factories  and  rul)l)cr-smoking  plants,  are  some  of  the  kinds 
that  depend  upon  wood  or  other  vegetable  fibei-s  for  fuel. 

(6)  Coal  OS  a  Source  of  Power. — ^If  there  were  no  coal,  manufac- 
turing could  be  carried  on  by  means  of  wood  and  waterpower,  but  its 
development  on  a  large  scale  would  be  impossible.  Factories  require 
so  much  fuel  that  on  the  present  scale  they  would  soon  exhaust  the 
world's  wood  suppl3^  The  United  States  mines  about  600,000,000 
tons  of  coal  each  year.  To  get  an  equal  supply  of  power  from  wood 
would  require  one  and  a  half  l)illion  tons  of  cordwood  which  would  be 
three  or  four  times  as  much  as  all  the  wood  used  each  year  in  the 
United  States  for  both  fuel  and  lumber. 

How  the  Use  of  Coal  Varies. — (1)  Progressive  Countries  rvith 
Much  Coal. — The  distribution  of  coal  is  highly  favorable.  Large 
supplies  happen  to  be  located  in  places  where  the  people  ara  physically 
active  and  hr.ve  alert,  inventi.-e  minds.  The  countri(^s  of  the  world 
may  be  divided  into  four  groups  according  to  the  activity  of  the  people 
and  the  abundance  of  coal.  The  first  gi'oup  consists  of  progressive 
countries  with  much  coal.  It  includc^s  Europe  +i  om  Poland,  Czecho- 
slovalda,  and  Austria  westward,  and  the  northeastern  quarter  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  INIississippi.  Not  eveiy  part  of  these  regions 
has  coal  at  its  very  doors,  but  all  can  bring  it  without  difficulty  and 
therefore  share  in  its  benefits.  In  England,  more  than  elsewhere 
great  supplies  of  coal,  as  weU  as  iron,  in  the  midst  of  a  large  popula- 
tion gave  the  steam  engine  full  ()])])ortunity  to  develo]).  In  pro- 
portion to  its  size  Great  Britain  has  nuich  the  largest  and  best 
deposits  of  coal  in  the  world.  The  United  States,  to  be  sure,  has  much 
more  coal  than  Clreat  Britain,  and  for  household  use  Peimsylvania 
antiii-acitc  is  Ix^ttci'  than  even  the  finest  Welsh  coal,  but  this  counti'\- 
is  thill  \-t"our  times  as  large  as  (Ireat  l>i-i!ain.  'l'hi>  extcMit  to  which 
coal  is  mined  in  various  countries  may  he  judged  from  th(>  fact  that 
liritain  protluces  over  (>  tons  for  each  inhabitant,  the  United  States  G, 
(!(>rinany  4,  and  Belgium  3.     In  propoition  to  thei'*  population  these 


190  MAN'S   KKLATIUX    TO   SOIL  AMJ    .MINERALS 


THE  SOURCES  OF  POWER 


191 


four  countries  are  the  <2;reatest  producers  of  coal.     They  are  also  the 
leadina;  nianufacturina;  countries. 

(2)   Progressive  Countries  with  Small  Coal  Supplies. — Next  in  coal 


Fig.  60. — Distribution  of  Coal  Deposits. 

production  to  the  countries  just  named  come  France,  Canada  and 
Australia  with  about  H  tons  per  inhalntant.     Then  follow  C'zecho- 


FiG.  61. — Distribution  of  Coal  Production. 


Slovakia,  Poland,  and  South  Africa,  with  1  ton,  and  Russia  and.lajxui 
witli  <)ii!\'  half  a  t.oii.  At  least  portions  of  each  of  these  count  vies  are 
inhal)it('d  hy  ])eople  so  wide-awake  and  encM-getic  that    they  have 


192  MAXS    KKLATIOX   TO   SOIL   AND    MI.NKRALS 

developed  their  coal  to  frreat  advanta^^e  and  are  therein'  al^Ie  to  carry 
on  a  pxul  deal  of  nKunifaeturin^. 

{'A)  lUu-hu-avd  Countries  with  Much  Coul. — (  hhia,  Indo-China,  and 
Siberia  have  larjre  dei)osit.s  of  coal,  those  of  China  being  second  only 
to  those  of  the  United  States.  Yet  in  these  regions  the  coal  has  re- 
mained largely  unused.  Only  during  recent  years  under  the  influence 
of  l-'uropeans  has  it  begun  to  l)e  exploited.  The  lack  of  manufactures 
in  these  countries  coni]-)ar{>(l  with  the  activity  of  manufacturing  in- 
dustries even  in  count  ries  with  limited  supplies  of  coal  such  as  France, 
southeastern  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Japan,  shows  that  coal 
alone  is  of  little  ini])ortance  in  developing  manufacturing  industries 
unless  th(U-e  ar(^  also  ciicrgctic  i)eo])l('. 

(4)  Backward  Countries  with  Little  Coal. — Tropical  countries  are 
the  least  favoretl  in  tlunr  su])plies  of  coal,  as  well  as  in  the  character  of 
their  people.  Peru  and  Bolivia,  to  l)e  sure,  have  a  little  coal,  but  have 
never  mined  it  extensively.  IncUa,  in  proportion  to  its  population, 
has  no  more  than  these  countries,  although  the  presence  of  the  English 
has  caused  it  to  l)e  developed.  Other  tropical  countries  appear  to 
hav(!  almost  no  coal,  although  there  may  be  large  supplies  as  yet  un- 
discovered.    At  any  rate,  coal  has  had  little  effect  on  their  industries. 

Conservation  of  Coal. — Since  coal  is  the  most  important  mineral 
product  aside  from  iron  it  should  l)e  most  carefully  consented.  The 
world  is  using  up  its  coal  at  the  enormous  rate  of  between  two  and 
three  l)illion  tons  a  year.  If  the  use  of  coal  should  continue  to  in- 
crease at  the  present  rate,  all  the  coal  would  be  gone  in  150  years. 
Even  if  the  rate  of  increase  declines  and  we  cease  to  waste  so  nmch, 
the  coal  will  be  largely  exhausted  in  not  much  over  a  thousand  years. 
Then  what  will  our  descendants  do?  No  other  known  fuels  can  fill 
our  needs.  The  world's  sui)i)ly  of  peat,  for  exami)le,  is  estimated  at 
13,0()0,000,0()()  tons.  This  sounds  large.  l)ut  if  ]ieat.  had  to  be  sub- 
stituted for  coal  the  entire  su])])ly  would  be  gone  in  six  or  seven  yeai-s. 

Fortunately  much  of  the  coal  of  the  United  States  still  lu'longs  to 
the  nation  as  a  whole.  Therefore  it.  can  be  carefully  guarded  so  that 
it  may  not  be  wasted  or  gi\'en  away  to  favored  individuals  :is  has 
hap]X'ned  so  largely  in  the  ]iast.  ISIoreover,  there  are  many  ways  of 
decreasing  the  waste  of  coal.  (1)  For  example,  in  can-jang  coal  from 
the  mines  to  the  fa<"tories  we  use  an  enormous  amount  of  power  in 
running  the  trains  and  steamships.  Experiments  in  I'jigland  and  the 
experience  of  power  plants  in  America  show  that  by  Imiiiinii  the  coal 
at  the  mines  and  sending  the  energy  economically  by  electricity  to 
factories  we  should  save  all  the  coal  consumed  by  thousands  of  freight 
trains  as  well  as  many  other  expenses,  and  at  the  same  tune  should 
make  ovu-   cities  clean  aiul  wholesome.      The  same  purpose  would 


THE   SOURCES   OF   POWER 


193 


be  accomplished,  at  least  in  part,  by  burning  the  coal  at  seaports, 
where  it  could  be  delivered  inexpensively  and  sending  the  power  to 
the  cities  of  the  intcaior. 

(2)  When  coal  is  burned  to  run  a  steam  engine  only  about  15 
per  cent  of  the  possible  energy  is  con^-erted  into  power.  The  other 
85  per  cent  is  wasted  in  the  heat  that  goes  off  into  space.  When  the 
15  per  cent  of  power  that  is  saved  is  us(\l  to  produce  light  there  is  an 
enormous  further  waste,  so  that  the  final  power  used  in  ordinary 


lij  C0ltrti.:.y  -if  Clul.t  I.n'inr  Cuinini.s.-iivii,  A.   V.  <\i,j. 

Fig.  62. — Shoving  Cars  in  a  Coal  'SUne. 

A  hard,  disagreeable  job. 


electric  lights  is  onl}'  one-fivc-hundredth  of  the  original  energy  of  the 
coal.  Already  we  are  learning  that  gas  and  a  liquid  like  gasoline  can 
be  extracted  from  coal  and  exploded  in  such  a  way  that  the  loss  of 
energy'  is  much  less  than  with  the  steam  engine.  Further  inventions 
are  possible  which  will  prevent  the  enormous  waste  of  power  which 
now  occurs  wIumi  we  use  coal  for  heat  and  light. 

(3)  One  of  the  gi-eatest  sources  of  waste  in  coal  mines  is  the  pillai-s 
and  walls  that  have  to  be  left  in  order  to  prevent  the  roof  from  ca\ing 
in  and  killing  the  miners.  Sometimes  the  coal  thus  left  is  recovered 
by  "robbing"  the  i)ilhirs,  that  is,  by  digging  them  out  after  the  rest  of 


194 


MANS    RELATION    TO   SOIL   AND    MINERALS 


the  work  has  Ijoon  dono,  and  letting  the  roof  cavo  in.  In  a  sparsely 
inhabited  country  this  process  is  allowable,  l)ut.  it  is  danf!;erous  where 
then^  are  jnany  houses  on  the  land  above  the  mines,  as  it  is  likely  to 
wreck  tlicii-  fduiidations  when  llie  surface  >;l(»wly  sinks  down.  In 
the  future,  howcA-er,  coal  is  likely  to  be  so  valuable  that  it  may  be 
worth  while  to  substitute  concrete  ]iillai"s  for  those  of  coal,  and  thus 
save  millions  of  tons  which  are  now  wasted. 


r 


Fig.  G3.-— Spinning  in  raicstinc. 
An  example  of  primitive  industry  where  human  power  nlone  is  employed. 


The  Life  of  Coal-mining  Regions.  -Although  coal  is  of  tremen- 
dous \  alue  in  manufacturing  and  transportation,  it  is  in  some  ways  a 
hindrance  to  civilization  because  of  the  life  at  the  mines.  The  proc- 
ess of  brealdng  out  the  coal  and  loading  it  into  little  cai"s  far  under- 
ground is  monotonous  and  tiresome.  It  is  not  particularly  well  paid, 
for  it  does  not  reciuirc  much  skill.  Moreover,  coal  mining  is  one  of 
the  most  unhealthful  and  dangerous  occupations.  The  presence  of 
coal  dust  and  "fire  damp"  in  coal  mines  impairs  the  miners'  health  by 
constantly  obliging  them  to  breathe  polluted  air.     Ex])losions  caused 


THE   SOURCES   OF   POWER  195 

by  fire  damp,  dust,  and  the  careless  use  of  artificial  explosives  cause 
many  deaths.  The  gi-eatest  danger,  however,  is  the  falling  of  pieces 
of  the  roof  and  wall  which  often  bury  the  miners.  Hence,  even  more 
than  in  most  industries,  those  who  are  more  competent  seek  worl:  in 
other  lines  where  there  an;  better  opportunities  to  rise.  Their  places 
are  taken  by  less  competent  ViTorkers,  who  until  the  Great  War,  came 
to  America  in  a  steady  stream  from  the  more  backward  comitries  of 
the  Old  World.  So  many  inunigrants  thus  poured  in  that  in  many 
mining  regions  w  here  they  lived  by  themselves  it  was  not  possible  to 
Americanize  them.  They  still  s])oke  their  old  languages,  followed 
foreign  customs,  thought  in  foreign  ways,  and  beHeved  that  liberty 
meant  license. 

Under  such  circumstances,  the  conditions  of  homes,  schools,  and 
churches,  and  of  social  life  in  general  cannot  be  the  best.  Strikes,  too, 
are  common.  In  the  history  of  the  United  States  the  worst  of  all 
strikes  have  occurred  in  coal  mines  such  as  those  of  West  Virginia 
and  Colorado.  Such  strikes  are  most  apt  to  occur  in  isolated  com- 
munities inhabited  largely  by  a  foreign-born  population.  Since  many 
miners  are  ignorant,  both  politics  and  social  life  have  usually  been 
dominated  either  by  unscrupulous  mine  owners  or  equally  unscrupu- 
lous anarchistic  agitatoi-s.  Since  other  industries  are  not  developed, 
it  is  not  easy  for  the  miners  to  enter  other  occupations,  and  there  is  no 
body  of  skilled  laborers,  merchants,  and  other  substantial  people  to 
act  as  a  "balance  wheel."  Hence  when  strikes  occur,  violence  is  apt 
to  be  common  on  l)oth  sides.  In  several  cases  serious  fighting  has 
taken  place,  and  United  States  troops  have  been  brought  in  because 
the  local  police  and  even  the  State  troops  have  been  unable  to  cope 
with  the  trouble.  This  oft-repeated  condition  has  led  the  great  coal 
State  of  Pennsylvania  to  estabUsh  an  effective  State  police  force,  or 
"constabulary,"  which  is  used  in  preventing  disorder-  when  strikes 
occur. 

In  England  also  the  coal  mines  have  been  the  scenes  of  some  of  the 
worst  strikes.  During  the  Great  War  the  miners  saw  their  oppor- 
tunity to  demand  higher  wages.  A  temporary  strike  threw  the 
country  into  gi"eat  alarm,  for  if  the  coal  supply  had  been  cut  off,  the 
operations  of  both  peace  and  war  would  have  been  brought  to  a  stand- 
still. Thus  it  appears  that  while  coal  is  the  foundation  of  mod(>rn 
industry,  the  actual  work  of  mining  the  coal  is  a  hindrance  to  civili- 
zation. 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas. — (1)  Why  They  arc  En.vly  Obtained. 
— Although  ]K'trolc-um  and  natural  gas  have  been  known  from  early 
times,  their  common  use  for  light  and  heat  did  not  begin  till  about 
1860,  and  for  ])()wer  till  near  the  end  of  the  century.     Among  the 


196  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   SOIL   AND    MINKHALS 

world's  ijn]iortant  fuels  petroleum  and  natm'al  }z;as  are  (1)  the  most 
easily  oi:)tained,  (2)  the  most  easily  distributed  {'.^)  the  most  varied  in 
their  uses,  and  (4)  the  most  easily  exhausted.  They  are  easily  ob- 
tained because  when  holes  arc  tlrilled  in  the  deep-seated  rocks  where 
they  accinnulate  the  pressiu'e  causes  them  to  well  up.  Often  oil  and 
pas  push  out  so  violently  that  the  well-drillinp  tools  fly  hiph  in  the  air, 
and  the  flow  cannot  be  checked  for  weeks  or  months.  Such  "pushcn-s" 
sometimes  take  fire.  When  oil  was  struck  at  the  San  Bocas  well  in 
the  Tampico  oil  field  ot  Mexico  in  1908  the  oil  that  pushed  out  caupht 
liic  from  the  drillinp  enpine.  li  biinicd  57  days,  consuminp  175, ()()() 
barrels  of  oil  a  day,  and  wastinp  material  worth  $3, OOO, ()()().  The 
flame  was  800  to  1400  feet  hiph  and  pave  so  much  lipht  that  a  news- 
paper could  be  read  by  it  at  nipht  17  miles  away.  Such  a  well,  when 
properly  capped,  is  worth  thousands  of  doUare  a  day. 

When  such  hupe  returns  are  possible  from  the  insipnificant  labor 
of  drillinp  a  well,  it  is  not  surprisinp  that  the  search  for  oil  has  been 
carried  on  with  the  same  eaperness  as  that  for  pold.  When  new  oil 
territory'  is  opened,  prospectore  rush  in  to  pet  hold  of  the  best  sites, 
and  there  is  all  the  reckless  excitement,  cuiarrclinp,  and  trickery  which 
occur  durinp  stampedes  for  pold.  The  first  days  of  the  CaUfornia  and 
Texas  oil-fields,  for  example,  were  man-ed  by  preat  lawlessness. 

(2)  Whj  Petroleum  and  Gas  Can  Easily  be  Transported. — Petro- 
leum can  be  transported  cheaply  because  it  can  be  pumped  into  tank 
cai-s  or  tank  steamere  as  easily  as  water.  It  can  also  be  pumped 
throuph  pipes  for  lumdreds  of  miles,  thus  pivinp  it  the  cheapest  pos- 
sible mode  of  trans]X)rtation.  Pipe  lines  to-day  run  not  only  from 
the  oil  fields  in  Pennsylvania  and  Illinois  to  New  York,  but  from 
Oklahoma  to  Chicapo.  In  Asiatic  Russia  a  pipe  line  runs  from  the 
Greak  Baku  oil  field  on  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Batum  on  the  Black  Sea. 
Gas,  too,  is  ])ii)e(l  liundreds  of  miles.  Throuphout  larpe  ;iic;is  of 
Pennslyvania,  West  Virpinia,  iiiid  ( )hio  :iliiios1  e\-ei'\-  house  is  su])])lie(l 
with  natural  p;is  which  is  used  lor  cookiup,  lie;i1inp,  mid  lipiitiup. 
The  pas  does  not  e\-eii  ha\-e  to  be  |)unipe(l,  for  with  the  aid  ol'  com- 
pressors it  is  carried  alonp  by  the  pressure  of  th(>  well  behind  it. 

(.3)  The  Varied  Uses  ,)/  Petroleum.— M\u-h  the  pivalest  uses  of 
petrol(Miiii  ai-e  for  power  and  lipht.  In  some  eases  it  is  burned  in  its 
ciMide  form.  I'oi-  instance,  in  the  southwestern  I'nited  States  and 
soutiieasteiii  i{ussia  oil-burniiip  locomotives  are  us(m1,  not  only 
because  the  lailroads  nvo  near  the  ()il-fi(>lds  of  Oklahoma,  Texas, 
California,  or  Baku,  but  because  oil  can  be  employed  more  easily 
than  coal,  since  it  docs  not  need  a  stoker.  Alany  warships  are  oil- 
burners  because  of  the  ease  and  spee<l  willi  which  this  kind  ol  luel 
can  be  put  aboard.     Even  in  mid-ocean  during  a  storm  or  a  battle  a 


THE  SOURCES  OF  P0^^^5R 


197 


warship  can  renew  its  supply  of  potrolouni  by  puinpin«!;  the  liquid 
from  a  tender  through  a  hose.  As  a  source  of  light  petroleum  is 
used  all  over  the  world.  City  people  often  fail  to  realize  this,  l)ut 
among  farmers  and  in  backward  countries  kerosene  is  tlu;  main 
source  of  light. 

In  its  use  for  power  petroleum  possesses  a  great  advantage  because 
it  can  not  only  be  burned,  but  exploded,  thus  giving  power  without 
the  intervention  of  a  boikn-  and  steam.  Everyone  is  familiar  with 
its  use  in  this  way  in  automobiles,  where  the  refinetl  pi^troknnn  ])rodu('t 
known  as  gasoline  is  employed,  but  crude  oil  can  also  be  used  in  the 
same  way  in  the  Diesel  engine. 

As  a  lu])ricant  the  effect  of  petroleum  upon  the  developnunit  of 
power  is  fast  coming  to  be  almost  as  important  as  its  effect  as  a  fuel. 
Modern  methods  of  utilizing  many  kinds  of  power  demand  high, 
speed  machinery  like  dynamos,  motors,  automobile  and  airplane 
engines,  and  many  machines  in  factories.  Such  machinery  must  be 
lubricated  with  high-gTade  oils,  and  petroleum  is  the  only  good  source 
of  such  oils.  Hence  without  petroleum  many  of  our  prisent  uses  of 
power  would  be  hnpossible. 

(4)  Why  Petroleum  Should  be  Used  Sparingly. — By  its  veiy  nature 
petroleum  tends  to  rapid  exhaustion.  At  first,  when  a  soiu'ce  of  oil 
is  tapped,  the  gushers  often  waste  a  gi-eat  deal,  later  thvy  merely 
flow  gently,  next  they  cease  to  flow  naturally,  and  must  be  pumpc^l, 
and  finally  the  wells  that  are  pumped  give  a  smaller  and  smaller  out- 
put. A  well  that  lasts  a  generation  is  rare.  In  s])ite  of  the  drilling  of 
new  wells,  the  yield  of  the  Pennsylvania  field  has  fallen  from  33, ()()(),- 
000  ban-els  in  1891  to  only  7,000,000  in  1917.  Pennsylvania,  which 
in  1890  ranked  as  the  world's  greatest  producer,  was  in  1917  exceeded 
by  Oklahoma,  California,  Texas,  Illinois,  Louisiana,  Kansas,  West 


PETROLEUM  PRODUCTION,  MILLION  BARRELS 


1903. 

1909. 

1913. 

1917. 

Per  cent  of 
World  Produc- 
tion 1917. 

United  States 

Russia 

Austria  ((lalicia) 

Rouinaiiia 

63.0 
75.0 
5.7 
1.6 
1.0 
2.2 
0.8 

182.0 

65.0 

14.9 

9.3 

6 . 6 

11.4 

1.8 

248.4 
60.9 

13.5 
7.5 

11.9 
1.0 

25.6 

335.3 

70.0 

5.5 

6.0 

8.5 

12.7 

2.9 

55.3 

66.7 

13.9 

1.1 

1  2 

Pritisli  India 

1  7 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Japan 

Mexico 

2.5 

0.6 

11  0 

World  Production 

2S5  0 

381.6 

503.0 

198 


MANS   KKLATIOX   TO   .SOIL  AND   MINERALS 


THE   SOURCES  OF  POWER 


199 


Virginia  and  Ohio  among  the  American  States,  as  well  as  by  foreign 
regions  such  as  the  Tampico  and  Baku  fields.  The  way  in  which 
production  changes  Ls  well  illustrated  in  the  table  on  page  197. 

The  demand  for  petroleum,  especially  for  automobiles  and  for 
lubricants,  is  increasing  enormously.  If  the  present  conditions  con- 
tinue it  will  be  only  a  few  decades  before  the  supply  will  be  largely 
exhausted.  So  far  as  fuel  is  concerned  this  will  not  be  serious,  for 
wood  alcohol  made  from  the  abundant  vegetation  of  the  torrid  zone 
can  take  the  place  of  gasoline,  and  coal  can  do  all  that  is  done  by  the 
cruder  forms  of  petroleum.  For  lubricants  so  essential  to  power, 
however,  we  know  of  no  good  substitute.  If  they  should  become 
scarce  and  high  priced  it  would  cause  great  inconvenience  and  ex- 
pense. It  is  a  serious  question  whether  the  country  ought  not  to 
take  steps  to  prevent  the  consumption  of  oil  where  other  substitutes 


Fig.  65. — Production  of  Petroleum 


are  available,  such  as  coal  on  wai-ships,  hydro-ek^ctric  power  on  rail- 
ways, and  alcohol  in  automol^iles. 

A  somewhat  hopeful  feature  of  the  situation  is  that  vast  beds  of 
shale  in  Colorado,  Scotland  and  many  other  regions  are  impregnated 
with  oil.  This  can  be  extracted  by  heating  the  shale,  but  the  jii-oc- 
ess  is  costly.  Hence  Scotland  is  the  only  country  where  there 
has  thus  far  been  large  production,  and  the  oil  shales  will  jjioI  "ably 
be  available  long  after  the  liquid  petroleum  is  largely  exhausted. 

How  Petroleum  Influences  Human  Activity. — In  its  effect  on 
man  the  gcograpiiical  (Hstribution  of  ])etv(»leuni  is  nuicii  less  impor- 
tant than  the  distribution  of  coal.  11  its  value  for  fuel  liad  l)een 
known  eailiei'  it   might  have  caused  mainitaet  uring  cities  to  grow  up 


200  MAN'S  IJELA'I'IOX   To  SOIL  AM)    MlNliliALS 

whoro  it  occurs,  but  now  this  rarely  happens.  This  is  partly  because 
jxHrolcuni  is  so  easily  transijorted,  anil  i)artly  because  towns  in  oil- 
jiroilucinfj;  regions  arc  generally  disagreeable.  Even  the  better  resi- 
dential ))()rtions  usually  smell  nl"  nil.  while  the  ])arts  wheic  most  of  the 
people  nmst  woi'k  aiHM'cMy  diily  and  iireasy.  Slimy,  oil-coN-ered  pools 
are  scaltei'ed  aiiKHig  black,  t'orbiddiiig  derricks.  Aiidthei-  reason 
why  manufacturing  centers  do  not  grow  up  aidund  <ul  wells  is  that 
such  i)laces  are  not  permanent.  Like  *'  boom  "  mining  towns,  they 
usually  grow  for  a  few  decades  and  then  decay  as  the  oil  gives  out. 

The  most  important  effect  of  petrolemii  upon  man  is  the  way  in 
which  it  has  led  to  two  gi-eat  improvements  in  machinery:  (1)  It 
has  made  all  sources  of  power  much  more  effective  by  maldng  it 
possible  to  use  high-s])eed  machinery,  requiring  cheap,  heavy  lubri- 
cants. (2)  It  has  led  to  the  invention  of  the  light  engines  which  are 
necessaiy  for  the  automobile  and  especially  the  airplane.  If  there 
had  i>een  no  such  thing  as  cheap,  easily  combustible  kerosene  and 
gasoline  it  is  doubtful  whether  we  should  have  had  these  means  of 
transportation  for  generations.  When  the  world's  petrolemn  is 
practically  exhausted  and  its  place  taken  by  alcohol  and  other  sub- 
stances still  to  be  invented,  future  generations  will  still  owe  to  petro- 
lemn one  of  the  most  important  advances  in  transportation. 

An  Example  of  the  Political  Effect  cf  Petroleum. — The  high  value 
and  limited  distril)ution  of  i)etroloum  make  all  the  great  nations  eager 
to  secure  new  supplies.  This  is  especially  true  of  countries  like  lOng- 
land  and  Germany,  which  have  little  or  none  within  their  own  terri- 
tories. Even  if  countries  have  an  abundance  at  home,  howe\-er,  their 
business  men  are  eager  to  find  new^  supplies,  for  the  development  of 
new  fields  is  extremely  profitable.  Hence  when  a  wondei-fully  jiro- 
ductive  oil  ivgion  was  discovered  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Mexico 
near  Tampico,  Americans,  British,  Germans,  Dutch,  and  other 
foreignei-s  all  hastened  to  get  control  of  as  much  land  as  possible. 
The  production  of  oil  increased  so  ra])iilly  that  although  it  was  negh- 
gible  in  1910,  Mexico  to-day  stands  next  to  the  United  States  as  an 
oil  producer,  and  th{>  Tam]:)ico  region  ])r()duces  more  oil  than  any 
other  area  of  eciual  extent. 

The  oil  fields  of  Mexico  ai'e  liiulil)'  iin])ortant.  for  that,  country 
itself  as  well  as  for  the  foreigners  who  use  the  oil  or  who  make 
fortunes  by  ex])loiting  it..  Since  ^lexico  has  little  (oal,  the  oil  is  by 
far  her  givatest  fuel.  It  is  used  not  only  for  some  of  the  factories, 
street  car  lines  and  lighting  systems,  but  for  about  half  the  railways. 
Still  more  im]iortant  from  the  Mexican  standjKjint  is  the  fact  that 
taxes  on  oil  lands  and  on  exported  oil  are  one  of  the  main  sources  of 
the  go\-ei'ninent 's  revenue. 


THE   SOURCES   OF   POWTSR  201 

Because  of  these  facts  there  has  been  much  conflict  between  three 
sets  of  people,  each  wishing  to  get  as  much  as  possible  from  the  oil 
fields:  (1)  the  foreign  exploiters  who  have  acquired  title  to  the  lands 
and  have  invested  much  money;  (2)  the  Mexican  government,  which 
feels  that  it  must  impose  heavy  taxes  in  order  that  Mexico  may  get 
its  fair  share  of  the  great  wealth  that  keeps  flowing  out  of  the  ground; 
and  (3)  Mexican  bandits  and  rebels,  who  also  waiit  a  share  in  this 
wealth  and  sometimes  terrorize  the  workers  at  the  oil  fields,  rol)  and 
even  kill  the  paymasters  and  others,  and  thus  compel  the  oil  com- 
panies to  pay  large  sums  for  protection.  The  Mexican  government 
has  sometimes  been  unable  to  prevent  this  or  to  punish  the  offendei-s. 
Such  complications  lead  some  people  to  say  that  people  from  the 
United  States  have  no  right  to  exploit  the  resources  of  their  more 
backward  and  less  competent  neighljor,  while  others  say  that  this 
country  ought  to  intervene  and  give  Mexico  a  good  govermnent. 

In  certain  respects  the  relation  of  Japan  to  the  coal  mines  of  China 
is  like  that  of  the  United  States  to  the  oil  of  IMexico.  In  such  cases 
the  fact  that  a  backward  country  contains  wonderfully  rich  supplies 
of  a  valuable  source  of  power  gives  rise  to  one  of  the  most  complex 
of  the  political  problems  that  confront  the  League  of  Nations. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company. — Petroleum  occui-s  in  such  a  way  that 
a  few  people  can  easily  obtain  control  of  a  large  part  of  the  product. 
WTien  this  happens,  great  economies  can  be  practiced  and  prices  can 
be  kept  up  so  that  enormous  fortunes  are  made.  The  history  of  the 
Standai-d  Oil  Company  illustrates  the  matter.  That  Company, 
though  now  broken  up  into  a  number  of  supposedly  indc^pendent  con- 
cerns, holds  its  place  as  one  of  the  largest  industrial  organizations 
in  the  world.  In  this  countiy  only  the  United  States  Steel  Corpor- 
ation exceeds  it.  Time  and  again  it  has  driven  rivals  out  of  the 
market.  It  has  done  this  largely  because  it  could  produce  oil  more 
cheaply  than  its  rivals  and  could  utilize  every  possible  by-product, 
such  as  vaseline,  paraffine,  benzine,  and  a  hundred  others.  More- 
over, in  the  early  days  it  obtained  special  railroad  rates  or  entered 
the  tenitoiy  where  a  competitor  hkuIc  its  sales  and  ])ut  the  prices  so 
low  that  the  other  company  had  to  go  out  of  business.  TIumi  j^rices 
were  raised  and  the  great  Standard  Oil  Company  got  back  what  it 
had  lost  during  the  period  of  competition.  Being  protected  from 
competition  in  the  United  States  by  peculiar  tariff  regulations,  the 
comjxany  kept  prices  at  a  high  level  in  this  countiy  and  soUl  much 
cheaper  abroad  than  at  home.  In  order  to  mcvi  c()in])(iiii(iii  in  for- 
eign markets  the  company'  also  acciuired  interests  in  other  countries. 
In  these  various  ways  and  also  by  wis(^  management  it  acciuinul  So  or 
90  ])er  cent  of  all  the  oil  business  in  the  United  Staff's      Thus  since 


202  MAX'S    K1:LA1"I()\     IO   soil,   AM)    MlXllUALS 

alumt  ISSO  it  has  dislributrd  more  tli.-iii  a  lullion  dollars  in  dividciids 
an<l  has  also  a('(iuii-cd  a  vast,  amount  of  jji^opcrt y  which  lias  hecn 
j)aiil  for  oul  of  pidlils. 

The  reason  why  the  Standard  Oil  (\)ni])any  has  ])0('omo  so  strong 
is  not  that  it  owns  all  the  oil  W(>lls,  for  it  owns  nuich  loss  than  half, 
l)u1  l)('caus(>  it  contiols  tiansportatioii.  Almost  cvcrvwhci'c  it  has 
succeeded  in  pr(>ventinji;  the  construction  of  any  i^jx'  lines  excejit  its 
own.  Since  transportation  l)y  ])i]ie  lines  is  far  cheaper  than  b}-  rail, 
independent  pi'oducers  can  iai-el>-  make  a  profit  unless  they  can  use 
])il)e-lines.  Then^fore  they  have  had  to  s(dl  their  product  to  the  p;rcat 
com])any  which  dominated  the  business  and  would  not  sei've  th(Mn 
()lhei-\vise.  l'\)rt  uiiately  some  of  the  leadinji,-  mi  ii  not  only  in  the 
Standai'd  Oil  Company  but  in  otlua'  lines  of  business  feel  that  at 
least  i)art  of  tlu^  w(>alth  derived  from  great  natural  resom-ees  and  fi-om 
the  growth  of  ]ioi)ulation  belongs  to  the  comnumity  and  not  to  them- 
selves. Therefore  consitleral^le  sums  of  Standard  Ci\  profits  have 
gone  back  to  the  pul<lic  in  the  form  of  (Midowments  to  such  institu- 
tions as  Chicago  I'liiveisity,  the  International  Health  ( 'ommission, 
and  the  gicat   Ivockefeller  i''ounda1  ion. 

How  Power  May  be  Obtained  in  the  Future. — In  s])ite  of  all 
possible  economies  and  inventions  the  time  will  surely  come  w  lien  new 
sources  of  ])ower  will  be  needed.  jMan-]X)wer  and  animal-i)ower  have 
long  been  insufficient.  The  space  available  for  raising  wood  decnviscs 
as  the  world's  ])o])ulation  becomes  more  dense.  Coal  and  ))e1roleum 
are  rapidly  being  exhausted.  Among  the  sources  of  jiower  now  used 
onl}'  the  wind  and  running  water  can  be  counted  on  as  p{>nnanent 
sources  of  abundant  power.  It  is  estimated  that  when  ])ro])er  dams 
and  resen'oirs  are  built  the  streams  of  the  United  States  may  ])ossibly 
sup])ly  more  than  1()(),()()(),000  horse-power.  At  jin^scait  our  factories 
aii<l  traiis])()rtati()n  systems  use  :d)out  30,000,000  li()ise-])()wer;  the 
heat  used  in  houses,  and  tlu^  power  us(>d  on  farms,  in  automobik's,  and 
for  all  manner  of  minor  ])ur])oses  ])r()ba.bly  brings  the  total  \\]^  to 
50,000,000.  Thus  if  the  water-i)o\ver  could  all  be  utilized  it  would 
suffice  for  the  ])resent,  but  our  ])()])ulation  is  growing  with  great 
rapidity,  and  the  amount  of  ]iower  n(M>(led  ])er  individual  is  also 
increasing  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Hence  if  we  have  200, 000,000 
people  in  1!)70,  we  shall  iirobably  need  much  moix^  than  100, ()()(), 000 
horse-power  for  all  ])uri)()ses  including  heat  ;ind  light.  Similar  con- 
ditions will  ])rob;d)ly  ])i-e\;iil  in  ot  liei-  cduiit  I'i.  s.  Thus  cxcw  w  lien  all 
the  water-power  has  been  harnessed,  the  woild  will  ultimately  n(H^d 
nmch  additional  ]iower  to  heat  its  houses.  <'o(ik  fnod,  carry  on  indus- 
tries, and  kee])  t  i'ans])()rt;il  ion  systems  in  o])ei'ation. 

Pai"t  of  t.his  can  i)ei-ha])s  be  ol)tained   from   the  wind,  but  the 


THE  SOURCE  OF  POWER  203 

greatest  source  of  power  is  the  sun.  In  the  (h'iei-  part  of  Texas,  where 
the  sky  is  usually  cloudless,  any  two  average  counties  among  the  245 
in  the  State  receive  from  the  sun  enough  power  to  run  all  the  factories 
and  transportation  systems  in  the  whole  of  the  United  States.  If  we 
can  de\dse  means  of  using  sun-power  directly  and  cheapty,  one  of  the 
world's  greatest  problems  will  be  solved.  To-day  steam  can  be  made 
in  solar  steam  engines  whose  boilers  are  heated  by  concentrating  the 
sun's  rays  upon  them  by  means  of  mirrors.  Such  engines,  however, 
are  too  expensive  to  be  practicable,  and  can  be  used  only  in  places 
where  the  sun  is  rarely  clouded.  The  engineer  who  invents  a  solar 
engine  that  is  practical  and  cheap,  and  that  has  sufficient  storage  to 
carry  it  through  cloudy  days,  will  do  mankind  a  most  wonderful 
service.  When  that  is  accomplished,  we  may  hope  at  last  to  get  rid 
of  our  strike-breeding  coal  mines  except  as  places  from  which  material 
for  dyes,  medicines,  and  so  forth  is  extracted.  We  might  also  get 
rid  of  the  factory  chimneys  that  pollute  the  air  of  our  cities.  Per- 
haps our  factory  towns  will  be  as  clean  and  wholesome  as  are  those  in 
Switzerland  and  elsewhere  that  now  use  hydro-electric  power.  We 
may  be  able  to  extract  aluminum  cheaply  and  in  enormous  quantities 
and  thus  conserve  less  abundant  metals  such  as  iron  and  copper. 
We  may  perhaps  pump  water  for  irrigation  so  cheaply  as  to  cultivate 
many  dry  regions  that  now  are  almost  uninhabited.  We  may  be  able 
to  heat  our  houses  electrically  with  as  much  ease  as  we  now  light 
them.  Think  of  the  work  and  dirt  that  would  be  saved  in  that  one 
way!  The  cost  of  transportation  and  of  manufactured  goods  will  be 
lessened,  for  now  one  of  the  largest  items,  especially  in  transportation, 
is  the  cost  of  coal.  In  short,  if  ever  solar  energy  should  ])ecome 
cheaply  and  easily  av^ailable,  life  might  l)e  revolutionizotl  almost  as 
nuu'h  as  it  has  been  by  the  invention  of  the  steam  engine,  and  the 
change  would  in  most  respects  be  beneficial. 


QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  ten  industrial  plants  near  your  home,  including  at  least  one 
power  j)lant.  Classifj^  them  according  to  (1)  the  source  of  power;  (2)  the  use  to 
which  tho  jiower  is  i)ut;  (3)  the  distance  and  method  bj-  which  the  power  is  trans- 
mitted; (4)  the  relative  cost  of  the  jtowcM'  and  flic  reasons  for  choosinji;  each 
Iiarticular  kind. 

2.  In  Switzerland  tourists  are  surprised  to  see  even  the  most  primitive  cot- 
tages lighted  by  electricity.  List  six  other  parts  of  the  world  where  a  similar 
development  is  likely  to  take  place.  Arrange  these  in  the  order  in  which  >()U  t liink 
an  investment  in  water  power  would  be  profitable,  and  give  your  reasons. 

3.  IMake  a  map  of  all  the  routes  of  transjiortation  in  j'our  home  district.  Show 
the  method  of  transportation  by  the  character  of  the  line  u.sed;  for  example:  rail- 
roads, a  solid  line;  trolleys,  a  double  l)roken  line;  automobile  roads,  a  dotted  line; 


204  MAN'S   lUOLATlOX   TO  SOIL  AM)   MIMOHALS 

wapon  roads,  a  line  of  dashes.  Color  the  lines  according  to  the  kind  of  power 
enii)loved.  Compare  the  routes  acconhng  to  (1)  t()|)onraphy;  (2)  their  value  to 
the  coninuuiity;    ('.i)  the  difficulties  of  construction. 

4.  Make  a  tracing  of  a  map  showing  the  coal  fields  of  EuruiJC.  -Vl.su  trace 
from  a  population  map  the  most  densely  pojiulated  jiarts  of  Europe.  Compare 
these  two  maps  and  interpret  them.  Contnist  the  density  of  jMjpulation  in  the 
Russian  coal  fields  and  in  tho.se  of  Alsace  and  Belgium.     Explain  t!ie  diffcreiKc 

5.  Make  similar  tracings  for  Great  Britain.  Pick  out  five  centers  of  den.se 
population  and  explain  how  they  differ  in  their  relation  to  the  sources  of  j^ower. 

6.  E.xpress  the  production  of  jx'troleuni  in  various  countries  in  the  form  of  a 
graph. 

7.  Make  a  map  of  the  world  showing  by  different  shadings  or  colors  the  kinds 
of  ]K)wer  that  arc  most  conunon.  l'^xi)lain  ycur  map  in  terms  of  geographical 
environment. 


PART    VI 

MAN'S  RELATION  TO  CLIMATE 


CHAPTER  X 

CLIMATE  AND  THE  CLIMATIC  ZONES 

A.  Why  Climate  is  Important 

Climate  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  geographic  factors.  It 
acts  upon  man  in  three  chief  ways:  (1)  It  sets  up  barriers  which 
limit  his  movements.  (2)  It  determines  the  supply  of  most  of  the 
materials  needed,  not  only  for  food,  but  for  clothing  and  shelter.  (3) 
It  has  a  direct  and  important  influence  upon  health  and  energy. 

(1)  How  Climate  Acts  as  a  Barrier  on  the  Ocean. — Clmiate  limits 
man's  movements  directly  when  a  rainstorm  keeps  people  in  the  house 
for  example,  or  a  gale  prevents  ships  from  going  to  sea.  Its  chief 
effects,  however,  are  indirect  or  in  combination  with  other  factors. 
For  example,  a  large  part  of  the  difficulty  in  crossing  oceans  and 
mountains  is  climatic.  America  did  not  remain  undiscovered  so  long 
mercl}^  because  of  the  broad  ocean,  but  because  people  feared  that 
climatic  conditions  in  the  form  of  storms  and  winds  would  wreck  them 
or  prevent  them  from  coming  home  again.  To-day  travelers  do  not 
fear  the  ocean  when  it  is  cahn,  but  only  when  it  is  disturbed  by  cli- 
matic influences  such  as  winds,  waves,  fogs,  and  icebergs  like  that 
against  which  a  great  ship  called  the  Titanic  struck  her  bows  and  sank 
with  1500  people.  The  effectiveness  of  the  ocean  as  a  barrier  would 
be  gi'catly  reduced  if  the  climatif  dangers  could  lie  eliminated. 

How  Climate  Sets  up  a  Barrier  among  Mountains. — In  the  same 
way  the  barricn-  of  the  mountains  is  largely  climatic.  For  instance,  in 
crossing  the  Himalayas  from  India  to  western  China  the  steep  slopes 
and  thin  air  are  indeed  a  great  hindrance.  Yet  these  direct  effects 
of  relief  arc  far  less  dreaded  than  are  the  climatic  conditions  of  low 
temperature,  nipping  wind,  and  fierce  snowstorms,  followed  In'  the 
blinding  glare  of  the  sun.  Woi"sc  still  are  the  cUmatic  conditions  that 
cause  avalanches  which  sometimes  bury  whole  caravans,  and  glac'e'-s 

205 


200  MAN'S  RELATION   TO  CLIMATE 

where  man  and  Ix^ast  somotinirs  plnnp;o  to  tlioir  death  in  deep  cre- 
vasses. Worst  of  all  is  the  absence  of  vegetation,  because  the  climate 
is  so  cold  lliat  on  vast  stretches  of  high  barren  plateau  no  one  can 
dwell  and  not  even  p;rass  can  gxow.  It  is  so  diflicult  to  brinp;  food 
there  that  among  the  caravans  on  the  way  from  India  to  western 
China,  hundreds  of  weakened  animals  die  each  year  from  hunger 
and  exjiosure.  In  a  single  day's  journej^  a  traveler  counted  32  dead 
horses  that  had  recently  fallen  l)y  the  trail;  the  next  da}'  he  counted 
220;  and  the  third  day  474,  in  adchtion  to  one  human  corpse.  All  that 
was  due  to  the  cold  climate  acting  either  directl}^  through  storm 
and  wind,  or  indirectly  through  the  absence  of  vegetation. 

How  Climate  Bars  the  Way  within  the  Frigid  Zone. — The  climate 
of  cold  regions  erects  barriers  even  more  impassable  than  those  of 
mountains  and  oceans.  The  world's  largest  unexplored  areas  are 
the  snowy  plateaus  of  Antarctica  and  Greenland  and  the  bitterly  cold 
regions  of  northern  America  and  Asia.  So  impassable  are  the  great 
fields  of  snow  and  ice  that  the  poles  were  not  reached  till  the 
present  centuiy  in  spite  of  attempt  after  attempt.  Peary  reached 
the  North  Pole  and  Amundsen  the  South  only  after  long  experience 
had  taught  explorers  how  best  to  use  dogs  and  other  means  of  trans- 
portation, how  to  caiTy  and  store  great  supplies  of  food  and  fuel,  and 
how  to  ]-)ro^•ide  the  warmest  clothing  and  shelter. 

How  Climate  Acts  as  a  Barrier  in  Deserts. — Next  in  difficulty  to 
1 1  le  (I  imatic  bamer  of  cold  regions  come  hot,  dry  deserts.  In  southern 
Arahia  the  desert  climate  makes  such  a  barrier  that  no  explorer  has 
ever  penetrated  a  region  hundreds  of  thousands  of  scjuare  miles  in  ex- 
tent. The  natives  fear  this  region  not  only  because  there  is  no 
water,  but  because  of  the  extreme  difficulty  of  clmibing  the  loft}^ 
dunes  of  diy,  sliding  sand  piled  up  lunulreds  of  feet  by  violent  winds. 
When  the  wind  dies  down  the  dust  settles  in  the  low  flat  areas  between 
the  dunes.  As  no  rain  falls  for  years  at  a  time  the  dust  l)ecomes  so 
deep  that  one  sinks  in  it  above  the  ankles  even  on  the.  edges,  and 
every  movement  raises  it  in  stifling,  choking  clouds.  No  one  dares 
go  farther  for  fear  of  sinking  de(>])er  and  then  falling  and  being 
smothered. 

How  Climate  Sets  up  a  Barrier  in  Tropical  Forests. — The  damp 
heat  of  troi)ical  forests  creates  a  barrier  to  lunuan  movement  almost 
as  serious  as  that  of  deserts.  Not  only  does  such  heat  cause  the 
growth  of  dense  forests  through  which  1ra\('l  is  ahnost  unpossible, 
but  it  is  most  exhausting  to  human  energy,  and  fostei^s  some  of  the 
world's  most  deadly  fevers.  Even  so  wise  and  A'igorous  an  explorer  as 
Theodore  Roosevelt  was  baffled  by  the  barrier  of  the  South  American 
forests,  and  could  not  escape  the  ravages  of  tropical  fever.     Thus  on 


CLIMATE   AND   CLIMATIC   ZONES 


207 


208 


MAX'S   KKLATIOX   TO   CLIMATE 


^  1 


CLIMATE  AND  CLIIMATIC  ZONES  209 

oceans,  among  mountains,  in  deserts,  and  in  both  high  and 
low  latitudes  such  clunatic  conditions  as  high  winds,  intense 
cold,  extreme  aridity,  and  damp  tropical  heat,  are  among  the 
circumstances  most  unfavorable  to  man's  movement  from  place 
to  place. 

(2)  Clhnate  and  the  Food  Supply. — The  effect  of  climate  on  man's 
material  needs  can  best  be  illustrated  bj^  considering  the  food  supply, 
for  materials  for  clothing  and  shelter  vary  from  place  to  place  in  the 
same  way  as  food.  Clhnate,  more  than  anything  else,  determines 
the  nature  and  abundance  of  vegetation  and  hence  of  man's  food 
supply.  People  who  have  spent  their  lives  among  the  forests  and 
meadows  of  a  moist  temperate  climate  such  as  prevails  in  the  eastern 
United  States  often  feel  as  if  such  vegetation  prevailed  everywhere. 
Similarly  a  person  who  has  always  lived  in  a  diy  climate  is  likely 
to  think  that  all  parts  of  the  world  consist  of  thriving  in-igatcd 
orchards  and  fields  surrounded  by  barren  land  with  only  a  few  scraggly 
bushes  and  tufts  of  dry  grass.  The  man  who  lives  among  the  forests 
and  meadows  may  raise  cattle,  oats,  turnips,  and  potatoes.  The 
man  in  the  chy  climate  may  raise  grapes,  oranges,  wheat,  and  celery. 
These  examples  illustrate  how  greatly  food  may  vary  in  response  to 
the  climate. 

Variations  in  the  food  supply  in  their  turn  have  much  to  do  with 
people's  habits.  Since  the  Esldmo,  for  instance,  lives  in  a  climate 
wliich  almost  forbids  the  gi'owth  of  vegetation  upon  the  land,  but  not 
in  the  sea,  he  must  catch  sea  animals  for  food.  Therefore  he  is  a 
good  hunter  and  a  bold  fisherman,  and  wandei-s  far  and  wide  upon 
the  water.  He  is  as  much  at  home  in  his  kayak  as  upon  the  land.  The 
Fiji  Islander,  on  the  other  hand,  lives  in  a  climate  where  a  few  bread- 
fruit trees  or  cocoanut  palms  furnish  food  for  himself  and  his  family 
without  work.  That  is  one  reason  why  he  is  lazy  and  effeminate  and 
spends  most  of  his  time  sitting  idly  at  home. 

(3)  Climate  in  Relation  to  Health  and  Energy. — Man's  health  and 
energy  are  influenced  by  climate  both  directh'  and  indirectly.  In  the 
temperate  zone  eveiyone  knows  that  some  days  the  air  is  invigorating 
and  on  others  depressing.  IMost  people  work  slowly  on  hot,  nuiggy 
days,  for  if  they  work  fast  the  result  is  unusual  weariness.  On  a  clear 
bracing  day  in  the  autumn,  on  the  contrary,  we  often  feel  as  if  we 
could  do  anytliing  no  matter  how  hard.  Still  later,  on  a  cold  winter 
day,  we  sometimes  run  to  keep  warm,  but  in  the  house  we  feel  a  little 
dull  and  stupid.  Thus  in  many  ways  oiu-  activity  of  mind  and  body 
is  infhienced  directly  by  climate.  That  is  one  chief  reason  why 
tropical  races  have  never  made  nni<li  i)r()gress.  Their  climate  is  too 
warm.     On  the  other  hand,  such  peoi)lc  as  the  C'hukjees  of  northern 


210  MAN'S   KELATKJN    TU   CLIMATE 

Asia  are  made  stupid  and  tlicir  propross  is  retarded  because  their 
climate  is  too  cold. 

Climate  also  influences  the  body  indirectly,  especially  through 
diseases.  "When  negroes  or  other  tr()])i('al  races  change  their  climate 
by  coming  to  the  North  they  are  liable  to  suffer  from  consumption, 
pneumonia,  and  similar  diseases  of  the  lungs.  In  lr(»])ical  couiilries 
the  diseases  encovu'aged  by  the  clhuate  are  far  woi^se.  There  the 
cUmatic  conditions  favor  many  disease-bearing  insects  such  as  the 
anopheles  mosquito,  which  carries  malaria,  and  the  st€(jo7naria  mos- 
quito, which  carries  yellow  fever.  How  bad  the  tro])ical  diseases  arc 
maj'  be  judged  from  the  account  of  a  recent  traveler  in  the  Amazon 
Basin.  He  speaks  of  ihc  change  in  some  of  his  comrades  after  only 
two  weeks  in  the  steaming,  insect-inh^sled  forest.  "Several  of  them 
were  already  suffering  from  violent  attacks  of  malaria,  and  their 
faces  were  colorless  and  sallow;  others  who  had  been  in  the  region 
longer  stared  at  our  boat  with  sunken,  lusterless  eyes  hi  which  not 
even  a  vestige  of  interest  in  our  visit  or  of  hope  was  evident ;  a  iew  had 
apparently  reached  the  stage  ^\  here  the  sight  of  the  twelve  newl}-  made 
graves  on  the  hill-top  no  longer  aroused  feelings  of  dread  or  a]ii)rc- 
hension,  but  rather  of  indifference  tempered  with  longing  for  a  wel- 
come release." 

The  Varying  Nature  of  Climate. — Among  the  five  great  elements  . 
of  ])hysical  enviionment  climate  is  by  far  the  most  variable.  The 
location  of  a  place  cannot  vary;  the  land  forms  and  water  bodies  do 
not  change  perceptibly  during  many  generations;  and  neither  the 
soil  nor  minerals  change  appreciably  except  where  man  int<>nTnes. 
Climatic  conditions,  on  the  contrary,  arc  constantly  changing.  In 
the  temperate  zone  a  down^iour  of  rain  is  followed  by  cloudless 
skies  to-morrow;  a  warm,  muggy  day  by  one  that  is  crisp  and  bracing. 

Some  winters  are  long  and  so  cold  that  nuich  snow  accunnilates; 
othei-s  are  short  and  opc^n.  One  year  may  be  warm  and  wet,  and  the 
crops  abundant;  while  the  next  year  is  so  dry  that  tlu>  farmers  can 
scarcely  raise  enough  to  make  a  living.  I'.ven  in  ti-o])ica.l  and  ])olar 
regions  there  are  marked  differences  between  different  years,  although 
the  variabilit}'  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  t(Mn])erate  zone. 

Climatic  variations  last  through  long  ])criods  as  well  as  short. 
Perhaps  twenty-five  or  thii'ty  thousand  ycai-s  ago  occui-icd  the  cli- 
max of  the  last  glacial  e))och.  Ice  several  thousand  fcvi  thick  covered 
much  of  northwestern  Muropc  and  most  of  North  Anieiica  noith 
of  the  Missouri  and  Ohio  Rivers.  Since  that  time  the  climate 
has  changed  so  that  most  of  the  ice  has  nu'lted  and  some  of  the  jdaces 
whicli  it  covered  have  become  the  most  progressive  parts  of  the  world. 
The  change,  however,  has  been  irregular,  for  sometimes  the  climate 


CLIMATE  AND  CLIMATIC  ZONES  211 

has  for  a  time  tended  to  go  back  to  the  former  glacial  conditions,  and 
then  has  become  even  more  mild  th:in  at  present.  Altogether  we 
may  say  that  cUmate  is  the  variable  factor  in  geographic  environ- 
ment. With  every  climatic  variation,  whether  it  be  a  gi'eat  change 
lasting  thousands  of  yeare  or  a  little  seasonal  variation  from  one  year 
to  another,  or  from  month  to  month,  there  is  a  correspontUng  change 
in  vegetation,  in  anunals,  and  in  man. 

B.  How  Climatic  Zones  Originate 

The  Controlling  Climatic  Factors.— The  fii-st  step  in  understand- 
ing climate  is  to  know  why  it  differs  from  place  to  place.  These 
differences  depend  on  four  factoi's:  (I)  the  earth's  rotation,  (II)  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  and  the  inclination  of  its  axis,  (III)  the  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  water,  and  {l\)  the  relief  of  the  lands.  Let  us 
take  each  of  these  four  factors  separately  and  consider  its  effect  upon 
tcm]XM'ature,  pressure,  winds,  and  rainfall. 

How  Rotation  Affects  the  Distribution  of  Temperature. — In  order 
to  undei"stand  the  effect  of  rotation,  let  us  for  the  present  ignore  the 
other  three  factoi's.  Let  us  suj^pose  that  the  earth's  axis  has  no 
inclination,  and  that  the  relief  and  the  distribution  of  land  and  sea 
have  no  effect.  A\'ith  such  a  simphfied  globe  the  sun's  movcnnent; 
through  the  heavens  would  at  all  tunes  follow  the  couree  it  now  follows 
at  the  eciuinoxes.  Hence  there  would  be  no  seasons.  For  the  reasons 
pointed  out  in  Chapter  11  the  equator  would  always  b(>  ihc  warmest 
part  of  the  earth,  and  the  temperature  would  d(H-line  steadily  toward 
the  poles. 

The  Distribution  of  Pressure. — The  most  prominent  feature  of  the 
distribution  of  atmosjiheric  pressui'e  on  the  earth  as  a  whole  is  the 
more  or  less  regular  rise  of  pressure  from  polar  regions  to  approxi- 
mately iMitude  30°.  Since  the  days  of  Ferrel  this  has  been  supposed 
to  be  due  to  a  circumpolar  whiil  ai'ising  from  the  westerly  winds  which 
make  an  eddy  with  a  depression  in  the  center  like  a  whirlpool  in 
water.  This  explanation,  however,  is  so  doubtful  that  for  the  present 
we  may  think  of  a  steady  increase  in  pressun^  from  equator  to  poles  as 
the  normal  condition  on  a  simple  rotating  planet  with  a  uniform  surface. 

This  simple  distribution  of  pressure,  however,  would  be  altered  by 
the  temperature  conditions  described  above.  The  high  temi)erature 
of  equatorial  regions  causes  the  air  there  to  expand.  Hence,  if  the 
atmosphere  had  an  upper  surface,  as  we  may  say  for  convenience,  the 
heat  would  raise  this  surface  well  bej'ond  the  level  that  it  would  occupy 
under  the  influence  of  rotation  alone.  Such  Imlging  would  not  in  it- 
self cause  a  change  in  pressure,  for  the  total  amount  of  air  would  be 


212 


MAN'S   KKLATIOX   TO   CLIMATE 


the  same  after  expansion  as  bc'fore.  as  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  a 
portion  of  the  overbulp;inp;  air  flows  away  just  as  water  flows  from  the 
center  of  a  g:i'eat  fountain  where  the  supply  wells  up  from  Inflow. 
The  air  that  flows  away  from  the  equatorial  bulp;e  moves  northward 
or  southward,  but  not  east  or  west,  because  there  the  same  bul^ins 
occui-s.     So  much  air  flows  from  the  equator  that  the  pressure  at  the 


I'ol.ir  Calms 


Zone  of  the 

WosUTly  Winds 


Tropic;il  Calms 


N.E.  Trade  Winds 


Low  rrcssure 
due  to  Heat 


Eiiuatorinl  Calms  0"| 

loi 


S.E.  Trade  Winds 


Tropical  Calms 


Zone  of  tlie 
Westerly  Winds 


Fic.  G8. — Pressure  I^elts  on  a  Siini)lifii'(I  (Ilohe 


sarth's  surface  dcH-reases.     ITencc  an  (iimiloridl  hdl  of  loir  ])r<f<snrc  is 
foriiicfl  as  shown  in  Fifj;.  08. 

Ill  tiie  latitude  of  the  tropics  and  a  little  farther  poleward  so  much 
;iir  is  added  by  ihc  flow  from  the  equator  that  the  pressure  is  increased, 
foiininfi;  a  suhtropical  beli  of  hi(jh  prcHHure  in  cacli  li(Mnis])h(M'e.  Farther 
j)oleward  the  air  that  has  risen  in  equal orinl  latitudes  <iia(lual1\' 
descends  givinp;  rise  to  westei-ly  winds.  These  circle  lomid  the  eartli 
in  a  fj;reat  whirl  wliidi  i-ediices  llie  picssiwe  in  liiirh  latitudes.  Tims 
a  simplified  ^lobe   would   have  an  ('(luatorial  belt  of  low   pressui'C 


CLIMATE  AND   CLIMATIC   ZONES  213 

between  two  subtropical  belts  of  high  pressure,  while  in  high  lati- 
tudes there  would  lie  two  polar  areas  of  lov  pressure. 

How  Winds  Would  Blow  on  a  Simplified  Globe. — Let  us  now  see 
how  the  pressure  belts  would  influence  the  winds  on  our  simplified 
globe.  Their  distribution  is  shown  in  Fig.  68.  We  will  begin  with 
the  subtropical  belts  of  high  pressure  because  they  are  the  starting 
point  of  two  of  the  earth's  chief  types  of  surface  winds.  The  weight 
of  the  upper  air  in  the  regions  of  high  pressure  causes  the  air  to  settle 
slowly  downward,  but  the  movement  is  so  gentle  that  it  cannot  be 
felt.  Hence  the  subtropical  high-pressure  belts  form  regions  of 
calms,  the  "  horse  latitudes,"  as  they  are  called. 

On  the  borders  of  the  subtropical  belt  of  high  pressure  the  down- 
ward movement  in  the  central  region  forces  the  air  outward  and 
forms  regular  winds  on  the  earth's  surface.  These  blow  toward  the 
equatorial  l:)elt  of  low  pressure  on  one  side  and  toward  the  polar  area 
of  low  pressure  on  the  other.  In  the  warm  equatorial  belt  of  low 
pressure,  as  we  have  seen,  the  air  is  heated  and  expands  so  that 
part  flows  away  at  the  top.  This  reduces  the  mass  of  the  air  so 
much  that  the  cooler,  heavier  air  from  the  neighboring  high  pressure 
areas  is  able  to  push  in  below  and  lift  the  warm,  light  air.  This 
cooler  air  is  in  turn  warmed  and  pushed  up.  Thus  an  ascending 
current  of  air  is  formed  in  the  equatorial  belt  and  there  are  no  steady 
winds.  In  other  words  this  ascending  current  is  accompanied  by 
equatorial  calms  just  as  the  descending  current  is  accompanied  by 
subtropical  calms. 

How  Rotation  Influences  the  Direction  of  the  Winds. — Although 
the  winds  that  blow  out  from  the  subtropical  high-})ressin"e  area  start 
toward  the  equator  and  the  poles,  the  rotation  of  the  earth  gradually 
deflects  them.  In  the  northern  hemisphere  the  deflection  is  toward 
the  right  and  in  the  southern  toward  the  left.  Thus  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  a  wind  that  starts  toward  the  pole  from  the  northern  side 
of  the  subtropical  belt  is  gi-adually  deflected  to  the  right  initil  it 
l)ecomes  a  southwesterly  wind,  that  is  it  blows  from  the  southwest, 
for  winds  are  always  named  from  the  direction  whence  they  come. 
Fuither  deflection  causes  such  a  wind  to  become  westerly,  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  68,  and  even  northwesterly.  Thus  it  happens  that  on  the 
noi-thern  side  of  the  northern  subtropical  belt  of  high  pix^ssuic  tlu^-e 
is  a  belt  of  prevailing  "  Westerhes."  Similarly  the  air  jiressetl  out 
from  the  southern  subti-ojiical  l)(4t  toward  the  south  |)ol(>  starts  as  a 
north  wind,  but  1>\-  ddhM-lion  to  its  left  bcconu-s  a  northwest  and 
finally  a  west  wind.  This  gives  rise  to  a  belt  of  "  ^^'estel•li(>s  "  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  as  well  as  in  the  northern. 

Let  us  go  l)ack  now  to  the  noithern  heniisph(M-(\  On  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  northern  sul)tropieal  belt   the  air  starts  ccjua forward 


214  MANS    RELATION    TO   CLIMATE 

as  a  northorly  wiiul.  It  is  dofloctod  to  its  rijiht  just  as  in  the  wost- 
crlies.  Ilciu'o  it  Itlows  as  a  iiortlicast  wind.  The  direction  and  steadi- 
ness of  sueh  winds  liave  caused  thcni  to  he  callcil  the  "Northeast 
Trades."  In  the  southern  henns])h(M-e  similar  winds  start  ('({uator- 
ward  as  southerly  winds  from  the  sul)tropical  helt,  hut  because  of  a 
left-lianded  detlection  lu'comc  Southeast  winds.  This  with  their 
steadiness  j:;ives  thejn  the  name  of  "Southeast  Trades."* 

Tlie  rej^ularity  and  strength  of  the  tilules  is  so  great  thai,  for 
centuries  saihng  ships  from  England  and  France  have  fo\nid  it  to 
their  advantage  to  go  south  to  the  trade  wind  zone  in  order  to  be 
blown  wcstwaixl  to  America.  On  the  return  voyage,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  a  ship  started  from  Morida.,  for  instance,  it  went  north  at 
fii-st  in  order  to  get  out  of  the  trade  winds  into  tlie  w(^sterli(>s  which 
would  blow  it  back  to  Europe.  \\'ith  tlu^  increasing  use  of  aii-ships 
the  direction  of  the  wind  is  becoming  of  still  gr(>ater  importance.  It 
is  worth  while  for  an  airship  to  go  hundreds  of  mik>s  out  of  its  direct 
course  in  oitler  to  find  favorable  winds. 

The  discover}'  of  America  was  made  easier  because  Columbus  haj)- 
pened  to  get  into  the  trade  winds  which  blew  him  across  the 
ocean.  The  fii-st  airships  to  cross  the  ocean,  on  the  contrary,  used 
the  westerlies  instead  of  the  trades  because  they  wanted  to  cross  win  re 
the  ocean  was  naiTow.  Hence  in  1019  when  Englishmen  were  trying 
to  forestall  Americans  in  being  the  fii-st  to  make  a  trans-Atlantic 
flight  they  brought  their  airships  by  steamer  to  Newfoundland  in 
order  to  fly  with  the  prevailing  winds. 

The  westerlies  and  the  trades  together  with  the  regions  of  calms 
give  rise  to  nine  wind  belts.  In  the  center  lies  the  equatorial  belt  of 
low  pressure,  rising  air  and  calms.  On  tlu^  north  side  of  this  belt  lie 
the  northeast  trades  and  on  the  south  the  southeast  trades.  Next 
to  them  come  the  two  subtropical  belts  of  high  ])i-essure,  d(^scending 
air,  and  calms.  Still  farther  toward  the  poles  come  the  w(^slerlies 
blowing  generally  from  the  southw{>st  in  the  northern  luunisi)here 
and  from  the  northwest  m  the  soutiiern.  finally  around  tiie  i)oles 
we  have  two  areas  of  iiregular  winds  and  calms. 

Zo72es  of  RainjaU  on  a  RoUitiiuj  CU.hc. — On  a  simplified  rotating 
glol>e  the  zones  of  rainfall  would  coi-ics])on<l  (o  the  belts  of  teiii])(>ra- 
ture,  pressure,  and  winds  that  have  just  been  descrii)ed.  Jvain  occurs 
because  air  is  cooled,     fweryone  knows  that  warm  air  can  hokl  more 

*To  understand  the  deflection  of  the  \vind.s  by  (he  earth's  rotation,  suppose 
yourself  t(»  be  in  the  northern  subtropical  belt  of  IurIi  pressure.  Face  the  equator 
and  benin  to  walk  southward,  but  as  you  proceed,  turn  more  and  more  to  your 
right.  Your  course  will  correspond  to  that  of  the  northeast  trades.  Repeat  the 
experiment  to  represent  the  .southea.st  trades,  and  the  westerlies  of  each  hemi- 
sphere, remembering  that  the  earth's  rotation  causes  deflection  to  the  ri^ht  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  to  the  left  in  the  southern. 


CLIMATE   AND   CLIMATIC   ZONES 


215 


moisture  than  cold.*  That  is  why  wet  shoes  dry  so  much  bettor  beside 
tlie  Idtchen  stove  than  in  the  woodshed.  When  air  rises  the  pressure 
upon  it  decreases  because  there  is  less  air  above  it.  Therefore  it 
expands,  and  in  so  doing  grows  cool.  When  we  fill  a  tire  with  a 
handpump  we  notice  that  the  pmnp  cylinder  gets  hot,  for  the  com- 
pression of  air  develops  heat.  Conversely  when  air  expands  it  loses 
heat  and  grows  cool.  Thus  rising  air  becomes  cool.  It  gives  up 
moisture  in  the  form  of  clouds,  much  as  warm,  moist  air  gives  up 
dew  when  it  touches  a  pitcher  of  ice  water  and  thus  causes  the  pitcher 
to  "  sweat."  Hence  clouds  are  formed  and  rain  falls  upon  any  part 
of  the  earth  where  the  air  rises  sufficientlv. 


Compressing, 
Warniing', 
Capacity  for 
holding  moisture 
increasing 


^>^ 


^^Atx^ 


Area  of 

Low  Pressure 

Calms. 


..d^r^  Area  of 


^^ 


High  Pp 

Cnln 


Fig.  69. — Diagram  of  Rising  and  Cooling  Air 
Vertical  scale  so  exaggerated    that    one    mile    occupies  as  much  space  as  a  thousand  miles 
horizontally. 

Rainfall  of  the  Equatorial  Belt  of  Low  Pressure. — In  no  otlun-  part 
of  the  world  does  air  rise  so  steadily  and  so  abimdantly  as  in  the 
equatorial  belt  of  low  pressure.  Therefore  this  is  the  region  of  great- 
est rainfall.  Fig.  69  shows  what  happens  there.  During  the  rainy 
season  of  the  equatorial  belt,  the  mornings  are  usuall.y  sunny;  clouds 
gather  towaixl  noon,  showers  fall  in  the  early  afternoon,  and  then  the 
air  (clears.  So  regularly  does  this  happen  that  people  count  on  it, 
and  plan  accorchngly.  "Let's  play  tennis  an  hour  after  the  shower," 
one  man  may  say  to  anotlun-. 

Rainfall  of  the  Trade  Wind  Belts. — Since  the  air  in  the  tradi^ 
wind  belts  moves  horizontally  its  capacity  for  moisture  suiTers  ])rac- 

*  \\\  roality  the  air  dop.s  not  hold  tho  moi.sturo,  for  tho  jjarticlos  of  both  water 
vapor  and  gas  are  so  small  and  far  apart  that  tliey  fly  about  in  the  same  general 
area  and  interfere  with  one  another  very  little.  It  is  .s/wirp,  not  air,  that  holds 
water  vapor,  hnt  the  cxjircssion  used  in  the  text  is  so  common  that  it  is  employed 
here  ar.d  elsewhere. 


216  MANS   l{i:LAil().\    H)  CLlMArK 

t  icMlly  no  chanjio  bocaiiso  of  inciease  or  dccrcaso  of  jm-cssuiv.  Some 
cliaiino,  howcvci',  arises  from  flip  fact  tluit  on  its  way  towartl  the 
(H|uaU)r  the  air  moves  from  cooler  to  warmei"  parts  of  \\\v  earth's  sur- 
face. Thei-efdi'e  the  air  gradually  grows  warm  and  the  cai)acity  of 
space  to  hold  moistiu'e  is  increased.  Hence  the  probability  of  rain 
grows  less  and  less.     That  is  one  reason  why  the  Sahara  is  so  arid. 

Rainfall  of  the  Subtropical  Belts  of  High  Pressure. — Poleward 
from  the  (hying  trade  winds  the  air  descends  in  llie  sulit i()])ical  l)elts 
of  high  pr(>ssure  and  calms.  Therefore  hkc  tlic  coinpicsscd  air  in 
an  automobile  pumj:)  this  air  grows  warmer.  lien('(>  the  amount  of 
water  vapor  that  can  be  mingled  with  it  constantly  increases  and 
when  the  diy  ail'  readies  the  earth's  surface  what  moisture  it  finds 
on  the  ground  is  eagerly  evajKjrated.  Thus  a  dry  belt  is  pi'oduced  and 
the  subtro])ical  regions  are  imiong  the  di-iest  parts  of  the  world. 

Rainfall  of  the  Belt  of  Westerly  Winds:  Cyclonic  Storms. — In 
the  belts  of  westerly  wimls  the  air  moves  hoi-izontally  i)art  of  the 
time.  This  movement  may  cause  a  little  rain  l)(>cause  the  air  is  mov- 
ing from  lower  to  higher  latitudes  and  hence  is  gi-owing  cool.  The 
chief  reason  for  the  abundant  rainfall  of  the  belts  of  westerly  winds, 
however,  is  that  they  are  regions  of  cyclonic  storms.  8uch  stoi-ms  arc 
areas  of  low  pressure,  500  to  1000  miles  or  nioi'e  in  wiiltli.  The  winds 
])low  toward  the  centei's  of  such  ureas,  but  not  directly,  for  they  ai-e 
dedected  to  the  right  in  the  northern  hemisi)here  and  to  the  left  in  the 
southeiii.  This  causes  th(>  air  in  such  areas  to  move  si)irall>'  in  gi'eat 
whirls  and  hence  gives  rise  to  the  term  cyclonic  which  means  wheel- 
like. Sometimes  cyclonic  storms  of  small  area  and  great  severity 
occui-  in  the  trade  wind  belt.  These  ti-oi)ical  cyclones  are  called 
''  hui-ricanes."  Tornadoes,  also,  which  are  often  wrongly  called 
cyclones,  are  cyclonic  in  character,  but  cover  only  a  small  area  and 
are  very  severe.  Some  lhimd(M'st()nns  are  of  the  same  kind,  but  less 
.severe.  By  far  the  most  important  cj'clonic  storms,  however,  are 
those  which  cause  the  ordinary  changes  of  weather  in  the  I'nited 
States,  Europe,  .Japan,  Ai-gentina,  New  Zealand,  and  other  parts  of 
the  l)elts  of  pi'cvailing  westerlies. 

Ordinary  cyclonic  storms,  or  cyclones,  as  they  may  jiidpeily  be 
called,  are  always  associated  with  ant i-ey clonic  aicas  or  anti-cyclones. 
These  are  areas  of  high  jiresssure  which  may  be  .")00  to  1000  miles  in 
diameter  or  may  sometimes  cover  a  contiiuMit.  The  high  ])i-(>ssure  of 
anti-cyclonic  areas  causes  the  winds  to  blow  outward  in  all  dii'cct ions. 
These  out-blowing  winds  naturally  move  toward  the  low-])ivssure 
areas  of  llie  cyclones.  Bf)<h  anti-cyclones  and  es])ecially  cyclones  are 
carried  foi'w;ii-il  in  the  gener.-il  (hilt  of  the  westeily  winds.  Some- 
times the  center  of  a  cyclonic  storm  moves  1000  miles  in  a  day  while 
at  r)ther  times  it  moves  onlv  a  few  miles. 


CLIMATE  AND  CLIMATIC  ZONES  217 

How  Cyclones  and  Anti-Cyclones  Influence  the  Weather. — The 

passage  first  of  cj'cloncs  and  then  of  anti-cj'clones  over  a  i)lace  gives 
rise  to  frequent  changes  of  weather.  Since  the  cyclones  are  areas  of 
low  pressure  their  conditions  resemble  those  of  the  equatorial  Ix'lt- 
of  low  pressure.  Their  passage  is  accompanied  by  a  gentle  uj^ward 
movement  of  the  air,  and  by  clouds  and  rain.  That  is  why  the  word 
cyclone  means  almost  the  same  thing  as  storm.  Because  of  the  high 
pressure  in  anti-cyclones,  on  the  other  hand,  the  air  there  descends, 
just  as  in  the  subtropical  high-pressure  belt.  Hence  it  becomes 
relatively  warm  and  its  power  to  hold  nioisture  increases.  There- 
fore anti-cyclones  arc  marked  by  clear  weather.  Anti-cyclones  arc 
often  cooler  than  cyclones,  especially  in  winter.  This  is  jjccausc  the 
clear  skies  permit  heat  to  be  radiated  rapidly  during  the  long 
nights,  and  because  the  air  usually  moves  from  higher  to  lower 
latitudes.  Aloreover,  sometimes  the  loss  of  heat  at  high  levels  is 
so  great  that  the  air  may  come  down  cool  in  spite  of  the  heat  due  to 
compression. 

Cyclones  and  anti-cyclones  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  man. 
The  cyclonic  storms  troulMe  the  farmer  in  summer  because  they  bring 
rain  when  he  wants  to  get  in  his  hay.  They  trouble  the  railroads  in 
winter  by  piling  up  deep  drifts  of  snow.  They  bring  heavy  rains 
which  make  floods  like  those  wliich  at  various  tmies  have  almost 
annihilated  such  towns  as  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania,  and  Dayton, 
Ohio.  Yet  in  spite  of  these  disadvantages,  cyclonic  storms  are  one 
of  the  best  things  that  a  country  can  liave,  for  they  bring  rain  at  all 
seasons.  In  the  same  way  anti-cyclones  are  both  a  trouble  and  a 
blessing.  They  troul^le  the  peach  grower  in  New  Jei-sey,  for  example, 
by  bringing  frosts  when  the  trees  are  in  blossom.  They  do  great  good, 
however,  l^ecause  in  combination  with  cyclones  they  cause  constant 
changes  of  weather  and  these  are  one  of  the  best  aids  to  health  and  a 
great  stimulus  to  work. 

Rainfall  of  Polar  Regions. — The  two  polar  Ix^lts  might  be  expected 
to  have  nuich  precipitation  in  the  form  of  either  rain  or  snow,  because 
the  pressure  is  low.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  they  have  little 
because  the  air  is  so  constantly  cold  that  it  can  aljsorb  little  moisture. 
Hence  when  the  air  rises  in  storms  it  pc^ds  only  slight  pre<'i]iitation. 

How  the  Earth's  Revolution  and  the  Inclination  of  its  Axis  Affect 
the  Climatic  Belts. — If  the  eiuth's  axis  were  not  inclined  to  the  plane 
of  the  orbit,  in  which  the  earth  moves  around  the  sun,  the  climatic 
belts  would  always  remain  in  the  location  shown  in  Fig.  68.  Hence 
there  would  be  no  seasons.  Since  the  axis  is  inclined,  however,  and 
the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  migrate  back  and  forth  from  latitude^ 
23^°S.  to23|''N,  the  heat  equator  and  with  it  all  tlu>  climatic  belts 
migrate  similarly  and  cause  seasons.     These,  as  we  have  seen,  prtxiuce 


218  MAXS    RELATION    TO   CLLMAii: 

a  profound  offoot  upon  man's  lifo.  If  tho  sun  stood  always  at  its  most 
southerly  ])osition  the  climate  of  the  northern  United  States  would 
permanently  become  abiiost  like  that  of  the  Poles,  and  only  people 
like  th(>  l-l^kinios  could  live  there.  If  llic  sum  stood  ah\ays  at  its 
most  northerly  ])osili()ii  conditions  would  not  he  quite  so  l)ad,  but 
the  heat  of  .Inly  would  ])revail  all  the  year,  and  people  would  become 
as  lazy  as  those  of  tlic  ti'o])ics. 

The  effect  of  the  migration  of  the  cliiuatic  bells  ujjon  rainfall  is 
especially  interesting.  It  causes  the  rainy  season  to  come  in  summer 
in  some  places  and  in  winter  elsewhere,  and  thus  determines  which 
regions  are  the  best  for  farming.  Su])pos(>  you  had  a  choice  bclwccMi 
a  farm  in  northern  Texas  and  one  in  northern  California,  each  faiiu 
being  in  the  center  of  a  plain  where  the  soil  is  excellent,  but  wluic 
irrigation  is  expensive.  Suppose  also  that  j^ou  knew  that  both 
places  had  the  same  rainfall,  an  average  of  20  to  25  inches  a  year,  and 
the  same  tem])erature,  an  average  of  al)oiit  60°  F.  for  the  year  as  a 
whole.  In  Texas  and  CaUfornia  there  are  places  of  just  this  kind. 
What  kind  of  farming  would  you  plan  in  each  case  and  how  would 
you  expect  to  live?  If  j'ou  were  wise  you  would  ask  the  Weather 
Bureau  at  Washington  for  monthly  rainfall  rei-ords  of  each  sec- 
tion. You  would  find  that  Texas  hes  far  (>nough  south  t.o  receive 
abundant  sununer  rains  while  this  part  of  ('alifornia  is  in  the  sub- 
tro])ical  belt  of  winter  rains.  Hence  during  the  six  months  of  the 
growing  period  from  April  to  September  the  Texas  farm  would  get  16 
inches  of  rain  and  the  California  farm  only  4.  Unless  you  could 
spend  a  large  sum  to  bring  water  for  irrigation  this  particular  Tali- 
fornia  farm  would  be  of  value  chiefly  as  a  cattle  range,  while  on  the 
Texas  farm  you  could  raise  excellent  crops  of  corn  as  wi'U  as  other 
farm  products. 

Why  Equatorial  Regions  have  Two  Wet  and  Two  Dry  Seasons. — 
I''ig.  70  illustrates  the  effect  of  the  seasonal  migration  of  the  earth's 
clunatic  belts  upon  rainfall.  The  shaded  ai-cas  incUcate  the  rainfall 
month  by  nionl li  t hroughout  the  year  in  vaiious  latitudes.  To  begin 
with  the  e(iu:it(iii;i!  belt  in  the  center,  notic(^  that  in  January  there  is 
almost  no  rain.  The  sun  is  then  so  1"ai'  south  thai  the  eijuator  is 
under  the.  influence  of  the  northeast  trades  willi  tlieii'  diyini;  elTect. 
As  tlie  sun  mo\'es  noi-flnvard  the  abundant  (Miuatorial  rains  come  with 
it.  Hence  the  rainfall  increases.  It-  rea<'hes  a  maxinunn  in  A])ril  or 
May,  a  month  or  more  after  th(»  sun  has  passed  the  ecjuinox,  for  the 
seasons  usually  lag  a  little  behind  the  sun.  Then  as  th(>  sun  goes 
northwiird  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  the  rainfall  once  more  diminishes. 
The  Ix'lt  of  southeast  trades  swings  over  the  ecjuator  and  in  .luly  there 
is  almost,  no  rain. 


CLIMATE  AND   CLIMATIC   ZONES 


219 


As  the  sun  and  tho  accompanying  rain  bolt  move  southward  once 
more,  the  rainfall  at  the  equator  increases  until  after  the  September 
equinox,  only  to  dmimish  as  the  equatorial  belt  passes  southward  and 
the  northeast  tratles  again  prevail  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Thus  at 
the  equator,  although  there  is  no  summer  or  winter,  there  are  four 


Fig.  70. — Diagrammatic  Plan  of  Seasonal  Rainfall  and  of  Vegetation  on  an  Ideal 

Globe. 


seasons:  (1)  the  dry  season  when  the  sun  is  in  the  south,  (2)  the 
wet  season  when  the  sun  crosses  the  equator  northward,  (3)  the  diy 
season  when  the  sun  is  in  the  north,  and  (4)  the  wet  season  wIumi  the 
sun  crosses  the  equator  on  its  way  south.  This  t}i3e  of  rainfall  with 
two  wot  and  two  dry  seasons  prevails  almost  unmodified  in  the 
equatorial  rc^gions  of  South  America,  Africa,  and  tlu^  East  Indies. 


220  MAN'S  RELATION  TO  CLIMATE 

Why  Sub-equatorial  Regions  have  One  Wet  and  One  Dry  Season. 

— In  the  two  (liajiTunis  (2N  and  2S  in  Fip;-  "<>)  illustrating  tlu>  con- 
ditions of  rainfall  in  the  trade  \Yinil  latitudes  15  to  20°  from  tlie  ecjua- 
tor  quite  a  difTerent  seasonal  distribution  is  seen.  These  latituiles 
an^  n(>ar  the  margin  of  the  ecjuatorial  belt,  and  hence  arc  calletl  sul)- 
equatorial.  \\'hen  the  sun  is  far  south  in  Jamiary  it  carries  the  e<}ua- 
torial  rain  l)elt  with  it,  so  that  the  soutliern  sub-equatorial  regions  re- 
ceive a  heavy  rainfall  as  appeare  in  Fig.  70.  ( )n  the  other  side  of 
the  equator,  however,  the  southward  migration  of  the  climatic  belts 
causes  the  di'j-ing  trades  to  blow  over  the  sub-equatorial  regions  and 
gives  them  a  dry  season  in  January,  as  is  shown  in  the  figure.  Six 
monihs  later  the  conditions  are  revereed.  Since  the  sub-equatorial 
belts  he  m  such  low  latitudes  that  they  are  always  warm,  they  really 
have  two  seasons,  wet  and  dry.  Southern  Mexico,  northern  Australia, 
and  a  strij)  of  northern  Africa  just  south  of  the  Sahara  have  this  type 
of  rainfall. 

The  Seasons  of  the  Desert  Belt. — -The  third  type  of  rainfall, 
tropical  calms  in  our  diagram,  is  that  of  the  desert  belts  25  to  30°  from 
the  equator.  When  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  near  the  equator  these 
latitudes  in  both  hemispheres  lie  in  the  belt  of  subtropical  liigh 
pressure  or  else  on  the  borders  of  the  trade  winds.  Hence  they  re- 
ceive no  rain.  They  are  warm,  or  more  often  hot,  at  these  times, 
because  the  sun's  rays  are  only  slightly  oblique,  and  the  sky  is  un- 
clouded. In  January  the  climatic  belts  swing  so  far  south  that  the 
northern  desert  belt  may  be  touched  by  the  edge  of  the  westerlies, 
and  hence  occasionally  receives  a  little  rain.  At  the  same  time  the 
southern  desert  belt  is  touched  by  the  edges  of  the  equatorial  rainbelt. 
Thus  the  desert  belts  have  two  brief  periods  of  slight  rain.  This 
gives  four  seasons,  (1)  a  slightly  rainy  winter  with  pleasant  tem- 
peratures, (2)  a  hot,  dry  spring  or  "fore-summer,"  (3)  a  hot  sunnner 
with  a  little  rain,  and  (4)  a  dry,  hot  autumn,  or  "after-summer." 
Southern  Arizona  and  central  Arabia  are  good  examples  of  this  type. 

Why  Subtropical  Regions  Have  One  Wet  and  One  Dry  Season. — 
In  the  next  diagnuus  we  come  to  the  subtropical  legions.  Here  in 
latitudes  30  to  40°  the  belt  of  high  pressure  and  aridity  rules  during 
the  sunnner  of  each  hemisphere,  while  in  winter  the  belt  of  westerlies 
swings  ccjuatorward  and  gives  raiji  from  frequent  cj'clonic  storms. 
Notice  how  the  cui'\'es  for  the  two  hemis])heres  in  this  and  all  other 
cases  arc  really  the  same  except  that  the  seasons  arc  six  months 
difTerent.  Thus  the  subtropical  rains  of  the  northern  winter  in  Jan- 
uary correspond  to  the  rains  of  the  southern  winter  in  July.  Cali- 
fornia and  such  Mediterranean  countries  as  southern  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Palestine  are  good  examples  of  the  subtropical  ty|:)c  in  the  north- 


CLIMATE  AND   CLIMATIC   ZONES  221 

ern  hemisphere,  while  Cape  Colony  and  central  Chile  are  of  the  same 
kind  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

The  Seasons  of  Temperate  Regions. — The  next  diagrams  represent 
the  fortunate  temperate  regions  where  westerly  winds  and  cyclonic 
storms  prevail,  and  there  is  plenty  of  precipitation,  that  is,  either  rain 
or  snow,  at  all  seasons.  There  the  seasons  depend  upon  changes  of 
temperature  and  not  of  rainfall.  The  northern  and  eastern  United 
States  and  western  Euroi^e,  together  with  JajMin  and  New  Zealand, 
are  the  chief  examples  of  this  Ujye.  The  people  who  live  there  are 
always  talking  about  the  weather  because  it  keeps  changing.  This 
is  quite  unlike  the  dry  belts,  where  little  is  said  about  the  weather, 
because  it  is  ahnost  always  clear.  There  the  water  supply  is  one  of 
the  chief  subjects  of  conversation.  The  abundance  of  water  at  all 
seasons  in  regions  of  cyclonic  storms  makes  it  possible  for  farmers  to 
li^'e  everj^vhere.  People  do  not  ha^•e  to  be  crowded  uito  compact 
villages  near  the  central  water  supply  as  they  do  in  dry  countries. 
They  live  where  they  choose,  even  though  it  be  miles  from  neighbors. 
This  has  helped  to  make  the  people  of  such  regions  more  resourceful 
and  better  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  than  are  those  of  other 
parts  of  the  world. 

Even  Distribution  of  Polar  Precipitation.— Finally  well  toward 
the  poles  we  find  precipitation  throughout  the  year,  but  chiefly  in 
summer,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  70.  The  amount  is  small  l)ecause 
cold  air  cannot  hold  much  moisture. 

With  certain  modifications  due  to  the  continents  and  their  relief 
the  rainfall  of  any  part  of  the  world  belongs  to  one  of  the  tj'pes 
shown  in  Fig.  70.  When  these  types  are  understood  one  can  easily 
judge  of  the  probable  nature  of  the  seasons  in  any  part  of  the  world. 
Thus  one  can  appreciate  the  effect  which  the  seasons  are  hkely  to 
have  upon  farming  and  other  industries  about  which  he  reads,  and 
also  upon  his  own  pleasure  if  he  travels  in  distant  regions. 

Questions,  Exercises,  and  Problems 

1.  How  has  climate  ever  served  as  a  barrier  to  your  movornonts  in  July? 
in  January?     in  March?     in  April? 

2.  How  does  it  happen  that  the  best  residential  sections  of  many  manufactur- 
ing cities  of  the  United  States  lie  in  the  western  quarter  of  the  city? 

3.  In  which  climatic  zone  wovild  pcnver  from  wind  mills  be  most  reliable? 

4.  Trace  a  map  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  insert  the  route  of  Columbus  on  his 
first  voyage  to  and  from  America.  Add  arrows  to  show  tlie  direction  of  the  winds 
in  the  climatic  belts  which  he  traversed.  \\'hat  relation  was  there  between  the 
winds  and  his  success?  Find  out  about  the  duration  as  well  as  the  location  of  his 
return  voyage  and  of  later  voyages,  and  determine  the  relation  of  these  facts  to  the 
winds. 


222 


MANS  1U:L.\TK)X   TU  cumate 


5.  Discvi.'tf!  the  .seasonal  chanp;es  throughout  the  year  on  an  ideal  globe  in  the 
following  latitudes:  10°  X.,  20°  X.,  30°  S.,  45°  X.,  (U)°  S.  Draw  diagrams  .sliow- 
ing  how  the  niiiif.ill  and  t('iiij)cratun'  would  \arv  from  month  to  month  in  each 
latitude. 

(■).  It  is  .said  tliat  sailor.s  can  sometimes  dip  fresh  water  from  the  ocean  surface 
in  eijuaturial  regions.     How  can  you  explain  this  possibility? 

7.  Draw  diagrams  illustrating  the  seasonal  march  of  temperature  and  precip- 
itation, that  is,  the  conditions  from  month  to  month,  in  i)laccs  having  the 
temperature  and  i)recipitation  shown  in  the  following  table: 


A 

B 

C 

D 

Temp. 

Precip. 

Temp. 

Precip. 

Temp. 

Precip. 

Temp. 

Precip. 

Jan 

Feb. ....... 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 

30° 
31° 
40° 

50° 
58° 
68° 
72° 
71° 
66° 
55° 
42° 
3'j° 

2.5  in. 

2.3 

2.6 

2.8 

3.0 

3.1 

3.1 

3.3 

3.0 

2.8 

2.6 

2.0 

■74° 
75° 
77° 
"9° 
81° 
79° 
77° 
78° 
79° 
77° 
75° 
74° 

0:4  in. 

0.6 

1.0 

1.5 

2.5 

8.0 
15.0 
11.0 

6.0 

4.0 

1.5 

1.0 

60° 
63° 

68° 
75° 

80° 
83° 

85° 
84° 
82° 
75° 
08° 
64° 

0.5  in. 

1.2 

0.4 

0.0 

0.1 

0.4 

1.3 

0.8 

0.2 

0.0 

0.0 

0.4 

78° 
77° 
72° 
65° 
58° 
54° 
50° 
50° 
^3° 
62° 
70° 
74° 

0.0  in. 

0.0 

0.5 

1.4 

3.0 

4.2 

4.5 

3.2 

2.5 

1.0 

0.2 

0.0 

Av 

51°. 5 

77°.  1 

73°.  9 

63°. 3 

Total.  ... 

33.7  in. 

.52.5  in. 

5.3  in. 

20.5  in. 

Locate  each  cf  these  places  in  its  proper  latitude  on  a  simi)lified  globe,  and 
describe  the  temperature,  j)ressure,  winds,  and  rainfall  of  the  zone  in  wliich  it  lies. 
For  help  in  this  use  Figs.  70,  71,  and  72. 

8.  What  would  be  the  probable  climatic  conditions  of  your  own  home  if  the 
earth  neither  rotated  nor  revolved  around  the  sim?  \\'hat  would  be  the 
probable  result  if  the  earth  revolved  round  the  sun  l)ut  did  not  rotate? 

9.  Plot  rainfall  and  temperature  curves  of  four  jjlaces  of  wliich  you  know  the 
climate  by  experience,  (live  ten  practical  results  of  the  seasonal  changes  of 
climate  in  these  ])laees  durin;^  your  experience. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  CLIMATE  OF  CONTINENTS  AND  OCEANS 

A.  The  Effect  of  Land  and  Sea 

(1)  Hoiv  Oceans  and  Continents  Influence  Temjierature. — The 
simple  arrangement  of  the  climatic  belts  considered  in  the  previous 
chapter  and  shown  in  Fij;;.  70  must  now  be  modified  to  show  the 
influences  of  (a)  the  distribution  of  land  and  sea,  and  (6)  mountains 
and  plains. 

The  land  and  the  sea  differ  groatly  in  climate.  This,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  because  land  becomes  hot  under  the  sun's  rays  much  more 
rapidly  than  does  water,  and  likewise  cools  much  more  rapidly. 
This  is  evident  to  anyone  who  goes  to  the  seashore  either  in  summer  or 
winter.  In  June  a  thvellcr  in  Minneapolis  may  leave  his  home  at  a 
temperature  of  90°  for  a  trip  to  Europe.  Three  da3\s  later  in  the 
same  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  he  may  want  his  overcoat  in  a  noon 
temperature  of  only  55°.  The  ocean  water  still  retains  something  of 
the  cold  of  wintoi'. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  so  far,  however,  in  order  to  note  the  con- 
trast between  land  and  sea.  Often  the  smnnier  air  is  cool  and  bracing 
close  to  the  seashore,  while  ten  miles  inland  it  is  hot  and  depressing. 
On  the  coast  of  central  California  at  places  like  Montcnv}-  people 
jokingly  say  that  in  summer  they  must  go  into  the  interior  to  get 
warm.  The  ocean  is  so  cool  and  west  winds  blow  from  it  so  steadily 
that  the  thermometer  stays  between  55°  and  70°  even  when  there 
are  temperatures  of  over  100°  one  or  two  hundred  niiles  awny  in  the 
great  interior  valley,  where  the  land  has  yielded  to  the  influence  of 
the  hot  svmimer  sun. 

In  the  winter  the  contrast  is  the  other  ^^■ay.  -V  buy  from  central 
New  York,  for  example,  may  leave  his  companions  coasting  on  deep 
snow  in  January.  At  Boston  in  the  same  latitude,  he  may  find  ])are 
gi'ound  and  not  even  any  skating.  This  is  not  because  Boston  has 
less  precipitation  than  central  New  York,  but  because  it  lies  on  the 
seacoast  and  in  wiiit(>r  is  kept  at  a  higher  average  temiK>rature  than 
the  interior  Ijy  occasional  winds  from  the  ocean. 

Since  the  lands  in  summer  become  warnu  r  than  Ww  oceans  and 
in  winter  colder,  the  change.'  from  one  season  to  the  other  must  be 

223 


224  MAN.S   RELATION   TO   CLIMATE 

gi'oator  on  the  continents  than  on  the  oceans.  This  is  ilhistrated  by  a 
coni]iarison  of  TiRH.  71  and  72,  wliich  show  average  temperatures  in 
January  and  July. 

Marine  versus  Continental  Climates. — (a)  The  Uniform  Marine 
CliiiiaU  (if  the  Lufukn  Islauils. — Let  us  compare  an  extreme  marine 
climate  with  an  extreme  continental  climate  in  the  same  lati- 
tude. The  southern  Lofoten  Lslands  off  the  coast  of  Norway,  and 
^'erkhoyansk  in  Siberia,  probably  furnish  the  greatest  contrast  to  be 
fountl  anywhere  between  places  lying  at  equal  distances  from  the 
efiuatf)r.  Both  are  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Yet  in  winter  the 
winds  blowing  from  the  ocean  prevent  the  Lofoten  Lslands  from  suf- 
fering the  usual  Arctic  severity  of  such  latitudes.  Grass  remains 
green  and  cattle  are  pastured  out-of-doors  all  the  year.  In  suininci-. 
however,  although  the  weather  is  milder  than  in  winter,  the  temi)era- 
ture  of  the  ocean  is  so  nearly  the  same  as  in  winter  that  the  islands  arc 
raw  and  chilly.  So  cool  is  the  air  that  practically'  no  trees  and  crops 
will  grow,  and  the  people  wear  the  same  thick,  warm  woolen  clothing 
summer  and  winter  alike,  'i'he  great  characteristic  of  the  marine 
climate  of  the  Lofotcns  is  its  uniformity. 

(6)  The  Extreme  Range  of  the  Continental  Climate  at  Verkhoyansk. 
— Verkhoyansk  is  so  different  from  the  Lofoten  Islands  that  one  can 
scarcely  believe  that  both  places  are  in  the  same  latitude  and  no 
farther  apart  than  Portland,  iNIaine,  and  Portland,  Oregon.  At  the 
Sil>erian  town  the  range  from  the  average  January  temperature  to 
the  average  of  July  is  120°  F.,  while  in  the  Lofotens  it  is  only  20°. 
At  Verkhoyansk  the  temperature  has  been  known  to  fall  to  90° 
below  zero,  and  almost  every  year  it  goes  down  to  —70  or  —80°. 
In  fact  the  average  for  the  whole  month  of  January  is  a]>out  —  G0°. 
It  is  so  cold  that  a  steel  skate,  so  it  is  said,  will  not  "take  hold"  of 
the  over-hardened  ice,  but  slips  on  the  surface. 

Strange^  as  it  may  seem,  the  sunuuer  at  \'erkhoyansk  is  warmer 
than  in  the  islands  off  the  Norwegian  coast.  This,  of  course,  is 
because  the  land  of  the  continental  interior  jnelds  quickly  to  the 
sunuuer  sun.  The  average  temperature  in  July  is  60°,  or  as  high  as 
the  higlied  ever  laiown  in  the  Lofolens,  where  the  July  average  is  only 
51°.  Temperatures  as  high  as  S.l  '  liav(>  been  recorded  at  ^'erkhoy- 
ansk,  while  75°  to  80°  is  connnon  during  the  long  days  of  rmnmer. 
Hence  some  trees  grow  in  s]iit(^  of  the  intense  cold,  and  crops  can  be 
raised,  although  none  will  grow  on  the  Norwegian  islands.  To  l)e 
sure,  the  ground  never  really  thaws.  If  a  man  digs  down  a  foot  or 
so  in  liis  vegetaljle  garden  in  July  or  August  he  comes  to  frozen  soil, 
for  only  a  thin  layer  on  the  surface  ever  melts. 

in  a  place  like  ^'erkhoyansk  not  only  (he  change-;  from  season  to 


THE   CLIMATE   OF   CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


225 


226 


MAN'S   RELATION    'In   CIIMATE 


THE   CLIMATE  OF   CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS  227 

season  but  from  day  to  night  are  often  extreme.  Out  of  doore  on  a 
March  night  one  wants  all  the  fur  coats  he  can  get,  and  Qxon  then 
one's  nose  may  fn^eze  diu'ing  a  short  walk.  The  next  noon,  however, 
the  warm  sun  and  still  air  make  it  possible  to  chop  wood  with  bare 
hands.  By  day  in  August  light  clothing  is  sufficient,  but  at  night 
frosts  may  occur. 

Wn-khoyansk  and  the  Lofoten  Islands  represent  the  extremes  of 
continental  and  oceanic  climates,  but  many  other  regions  show  some- 
what similar  conditions.  In  the  typical  continental  climate  the 
winter  is  long  and  cold,  and  the  summer  long  and  hot,  with  brief 
transition  periods  in  fall  and  spring.  The  typical  oceanic  climate  has 
a  mild  winter  and  a  cool  summer,  with  no  sharply  marked  transition 
seasons. 

(2)  Hoic  Continents  and  Oceans  Affect  Pressure. — Since  the  con- 
tinents and  oceans  alter  the  distril)ution  of  temperature,  they  nnist 
also  alter  the  atmospheric  i^rcssure.  As  the  continents  grow  warm 
in  sunnner  the  air  expands.  Therefore  at  high  levels  it  flows  away 
from  the  lands  and  accmuulates  over  the  cooler  air  of  the  oceans. 
This  gives  low  pressure  in  smnmcr  over  the  lands  and  high  over  the 
oceans.  In  winter  the  opposite  occurs.  The  lands  become  cold 
much  faster  than  the  oceans.  Therefore  the  air  over  the  lands  con- 
tracts, while  that  over  the  water  remains  expanded.  Accordingly 
some  of  the  upper  air  moves  from  the  oceans  to  the  lands.  The  result 
is  low  pressure  in  winter  over  the  oceans  and  high  pressure  o\'er  the 
lands. 

The  gi'owth  of  the  continental  areas  of  high  or  lov,-  pressure  does 
not  entirely  wi]ie  out  the  pressure  belts  that  have  l>een  described  for  a 
simplified  earth,  but  it  greatly  modifies  them.  Look  at  Fig-s.  73  and 
74,  which  show  the  distribution  of  atinosjiheric  ])ressure  in  January 
and  July.  The  dotted  lines  indicate  high  pi-ossure  and  the  solid  linens 
low,  with  intermediate  regions  between  them.  In  tlic  Januai-y  nia]) 
notice  how  the  northern  sub-tropical  belt  of  high  i)ressin'e  ex]iands 
over  the  cold  continents,  while  the  southern  belt  is  broken  l)y  the  con- 
tinents which  are  warm  in  the  soutluTU  summer.  In  the  July  map 
notice  how  the  northern  high-pressure  belt  is  ])roken  l)y  the  low- 
pressure  areas  over  the  warm  continents,  while  in  the  cool  southern 
hemisphere  the  ])elt  is  continuous. 

(3)  Uoir  Minds  Bloic  in  Respect  to  Coidincnts. — The  im]iortance 
of  the  changing  areas  of  high  and  low  pressure  over  continents  and 
oceans  lies  in  their  effect  on  the  winds.  Since  winds  blow  from  nrea^ 
of  high  ]iressure  toward  those  of  low,  they  tend  to  ])low  outward  from 
the  continents  in  winter  and  inward  in  summer.  In  I'igs.  73  and  74 
the  arrows  show  liow  the  winds  l)lo\v  duiing  .Iainiai\'  and  .hih'.     Of. 


228 


MAN'S   RELATION   TO   CLIMATE 


THE  CLIMATE   OF  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


229 


230  MAN'S    HKLATION    'I'O   CLIMATE 

course  the  diroclion  iiuiy  clKUitic  from  day  to  day,  Init  the  avorafijo 
direction  is  what  is  here  shown.  ( "oin]i;n('  tlic  two  maps.  In  .hiii- 
iiary  ihc  majority  of  the  wind  arrows  ])()int  away  from  the  hi^h 
pressure  areas  of  the  interior  of  the  northern  continents.  In  .Inly 
the  arrows  point  inward  toward  tlie  are:is  of  low  ]m'ssure  in  tlie 
northern  continents.  Thus  in  winter  the  cold  di-y  air  of  the  con- 
tinental intx'rior  blows  outward  while  in  sunuuer  the  moist  anil  rela- 
tively cool  air  of  the  oceans  blows  inward.  These  outflowing  winter 
winds  and  inflowing  simimer  winds  are  strongest  in  Asia  Ix^.cause  of 
its  givat  si''.e  and  its  location  in  a  latitude  where  t.he  contrast  between 
sununer  and  winter  is  extreme.  They  arc  weak  in  Africa  in  spite  of 
the  size,  for  that  continent  lies  largely  within  the  tropics. 

Winds  Cause  Ocean  Currents. — The  movement  of  the  winds 
causes  a  corresponding  movi'mcnt  of  the  ocean  waters.  The  cur- 
rents thus  fomicd  cany  ships  out  of  their  courses  ^^hen  the  sky  is 
cloudy  and  the  true  position  cannot  be  determined.  During  and 
after  the  Great  ^^'ar  they  spread  explosive  mines  far  and  ^^•ide  to  the 
great  danger  of  shipping.  Since  the  trades  are  the  steadiest  winds, 
thej'  cause  the  strongest  movements.  On  either  side  of  the  (H[uator 
the  trade  winds  blow  the  suiface  water  westAA-ard,  causing  what 
are  known  as  the  Equatorial  currents.  If  there  were  no  continents 
these  would  cond)ine  so  that  one  broad  continuous  cunvnt  would 
pass  completely  around  the  world.  The  continents,  however,  deflect 
the  currents  either  northward  or  southward.  In  Fig.  75  notice 
that  Cape  Saint  Kociue  in  South  America  divides  the  southern  half 
of  the  Atlantic  I^quatorial  cuiTent  into  two  parts.  One  goes  south- 
ward as  the  Brazil  cuiTent,  while  the  other  joins  the  northern 
equatorial  current  and  swings  aromid  northward  into  the  (lulf  of 
Mexico. 

Where  the  equatorial  current  conies  out  fi-oni  1  ne  (lulf  of  Mexico 
between  Florida  and  Cuba  it  begins  to  be  known  as  the  ( lulf  Sti-eam. 
It  is  the  strongest  ocean  current  that  we  know  of,  the  only  one  that 
moves  like  a  great  river.  In  liie  Straits  of  klorida  it  has  a,  (le])th  of 
2000  to  .'^000  feet,  a  width  of  about  10  miles  in  the  narrowest  ])art,  and 
a  velocity  (;f  nearly  five  miles  an  houi\  As  it  comes  out  into  the  main 
Atlantic,  however,  it  (juickly  loses  its  ri\-er-like  (luality  and  s])r(>ads 
into  a  broad  shallow  sheet  which  moves  more  and  more  slowly  until  its 
rate  is  only  half  a  mile  an  hour.  Although  it  kee])s  away  fi'om  the 
innnediatc  coast  of  the  I'nited  States,  its  inlluence  can  be  lelti  as 
far  north  as  ('a])(>  ('od.  Because  of  its  ])reseiice  the  walei'  on  tlu^ 
south  side  of  that  cajx'  is  distinctly  wanner  than  on  tiie  north,  as 
everyone  knows  who  has  batJK'il  in  both  i)l;ices.  When  vessels  sail 
from  New  ^'oI■k  to  l'.ur()])e  the  ])assengei-s  can  easily  detect,  the  time 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


231 


232  MAN'S  RELATION   TO  CLIMATE 

whoii  tlio  vossol  cntoi's  tlio  stroani,  for  tho  air  hoeomos  warmor,  tlie 
^vat^r  changes  color,  and  jc^lly-fish  aiul  other  forms  of  lifo  hcconie 
more   aluiiuhiiit. 

How  the  Atlantic  Drift  Modifies  the  Climate  of  Europe. — As  the 
Gulf  Stream  is  {lriv(>n  eastward  l)y  tlie  prevailing?  westerlies  it  spreads 
out  to  a  breadth  of  hundreds  of  miles  and  Ijeeomes  the  Atlantic 
"Drift."  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic  part  turns  south  and 
finally  rejoins  the  equatorial  current,  while  part  passes  northeast- 
ward to  the  Arctic  Ocean  past  Norway.  In  the  North  Atlantic  the 
Drift  s]-)reads  over  the  ocean's  surface  so  widely  that  the  winds  blowing 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Europe  are  warmed,  for  they  absorb  some 
of  the  heat  lirought  by  the  current  from  equatorial  regions.  Hence 
the  winds  l)lowing  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Europe  are  warmer 
than  those  blowing  from  the  Pacific  to  our  own  continent.  1'his  is 
one  reason  why  the  most  progressive  and  populous  parts  of  Eurojie 
are  about  10°,  or  700  miles,  farther  north  than  the  coiTesponding 
parts  of  North  America.  It  must  be  remembered,  how^ever,  that  the 
W'esterly  winds  from  the  North  Atlantic  would  give  western  Eiu'oiie 
a  decidedly  warmer  climate  than  Labrador  even  though  there  were  no 
warm  ocean  ciu-rent  in  the  Atlantic. 

The  Effect  of  the  Cold  Labrador  Current.— Since  the  Gulf  Drift 
pom's  ])art  of  its  waters  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  a  retm'n  current  is 
caused.  This  cold  Arctic  cuiTent  creeps  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
Greenland  to  Labrador  and  thence  to  New  England.  The  Labrador 
Current,  as  it  is  called,  is  of  considerable  influence  in  causing 
the  east  winds  of  New  England  to  be  cool  and  raw.  Its  pres- 
ence explains  why  sea-bathing  is  so  much  less  common  at  the 
summer  resorts  of  Maine  than  on  the  south  shore  of  Cape  Cod, 
for  example. 

It  also  explains  the  fogs  in  which  the  fishermen  on  the  Grand  Banks 
of  Ne^^d■oundland  are  sometinies  lost  and  perish.  When  south  winds 
reach  the  Labrador  Current  they  are  cooled  so  much  that  their  mois- 
ture condenses.  This  causes  frequent  fogs  not  only  on  the  Grand 
Banks  of  Newf(jimdland,  but  along  the  coasts  of  Maine  and  NoA'a 
Scotia.  The  dangei-s  of  the  Grand  Banks  are  increased  bj'  the  ice- 
Ix?rgs  wliicli  (he  Labrador  Current  brings  southward  from  Davis 
Strait.  Not  only  are  the  icel>ergs  dangerous  in  themselves,  but  their 
low  temperature  increases  the  fog.  Fig.  76  is  the  official  sailing 
chart  of  the  North  Atlantic  for  August.  Notice  how  inaiiy  foggy 
days  occur  near  the  Grand  Banks.  The  dangers  Iheic  aic  so  uicat 
that  since  the  Titanic  was  sunk  by  hitting  an  iceberg  in  I'.M'i,  the 
great  North  Atlantic  trade  route  has  been  lengthened  a  little  to 
carry  it  south  of  the  Banks. 


THE   CLIAIATE   OF   CONTINENTS   AND   OCEANS 


233 


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234 


MAX'S    HKLATloX    To   CLIMATE 


The  Oceanic  Whirls. — Each  of  tho  otlior  oceans,  like  thp  Atlantic, 
has  a  sciics  of  cuncnts  wliicli  arc  kc]it  circling;  around  by  the  ])revail- 
in<i  winds.  The  ('([uatoiial  jiart  of  llic  Pacilic  whirl,  as  it  may  be 
called,  is  tlellected  northward  like  that  of  the  Atlantic,  l)ut  not  to  so 
fireat  an  extent.  Nevertlu'less,  the  ecinatorial  waters  fiowinji;  north- 
ward alon<i  the  west  coast  of  Asia  warm  llie  winds  sufficiently  to 
make  the  east  side  of  Japan  distinctly  warmer  than  the  northwest 
side,  just  as  the  south  of  ("a])e  Cod  is  warmer  tlian  the  north.  Even 
ill  Alaska  the  cit'ect  of  the  warminpi;  of  the  water  in  distant  equatorial 
rejiions  can  he  telt  in  the  fact  that  oti  the  soutli  coast  tlie  hai'lxirs  an^ 
fr(>e  from  ice  in  winter. 

In  the  southei'ii  hcmis])here  the  wliii'ls  of  the  ocean  currents  p)  in 


Fig.  77. — North  Atlantic  Sailing  Chart  for  August.     Gale.s. 


the  opposite  direction  fiom  tlios(>  of  the  northein  liemisphere,  since 
the  winds,  as  we  have  seen,  are  deflected  to  the  ri^lit  in  the  north  and 
the  left  in  the  south.  Beyontl  the  southern  limit  of  the  whirls  an 
almost  unl>rokeii  cuii-ent  flows  eastward  encircling'  Antarctica.  It 
adds  its  el'fect  to  tiiat  of  the  "roarinji;  forties,"  as  the  westerlies  are 
called,  in  making  navif^ation  diflicult.  ('a])tains  of  sailinp;  vessels 
who  liaAc  to  navigate  in  this  region  oft.en  i)rei'er  to  go  two  or 
three,  thousand  miles  extra  and  travel  around  the  world  with  the 
winds  and  cuiTcnts  rather  than  to  take  a  shorter  ('oui"se  against 
them. 

In  the  Indian  Ocean  there  are  cuiTents  like  those  of  the  larger 
oceans.  In  that  region,  however,  the  monsoon  winds  Mow  in  op- 
posite directions  in  diU'ei'ent,  seasons,  and  the  cui'i'eiils  ai'e  cdri'e- 
spondingly  reversed. 


THE   CLIMATE   OF  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS  235 

(4)  Why  Continental  Interiors  Have  a  Good  Supply  of  Summer  Rain. 
— The  movement  of  the  ah',  as  we  have  ah'cady  seen,  (leterniines.how 
much  rain  a  given  place  shall  receive.  In  summer  when  the  con- 
tinents form  warm  areas  of  low  pressure  and  inblowing  winds,  much 
moisture  is  brought  inland  from  the  oceans.  As  the  moisture-ladi'n 
air  approaches  the  center  of  low  pressure  it  gi'adually  rises  and  hnally 
produces  clouds  and  rain.  Look  at  Figs.  78  and  79  and  see  how 
heavy  the  rainfall  is  during  the  smumer  when  inl)lowing  winds  prevail. 

Because  continental  interiors  receive  more  rain  in  sunnner  than  at 
any  other  season,  central  Kansas,  for  example,  gets  16  inches  of  rain 
in  the  six  months  from  April  to  Septemter  and  only  4  during  the 
other  six  months.  If  the  Kansas  rainfall  were  evenly  distrilnited 
throughout  the  year  it  would  not  be  enough  for  agiiculture.  Luckily 
the  continental  low  pressure  causes  the  winds  to  blow  toward  the 
interior  more  strongly  in  smnmer  than  at  any  other  season,  and  hence 
as  far  west  as  central  Kansas  the  crops  are  usually  well  watered.  In 
winter,  on  the  other  hand,  the  low  temperature,  high  pressure,  and 
out])lowing  winds  cause  ths  interiors  of  the  continents  to  be  very 
dry.  Thus  though  the  Dakotas  are  much  colder  than  New  York 
State  in  winter,  they  have  far  less  snow.  This  is  an  advantage  in  some 
ways,  for  it  permits  cattle  to  pasture  all  winter,  while  in  the  s])ring 
the  ground  is  not  covered  with  a  layer  of  snow  which  would  delay  the 
melting  of  the  frost  and  so  prevent  early  plowing  and  planting. 

How  the  Great  Seasonal  Contrasts  of  Asia  Cause  Monsoons. — 
The  most  extreme  effect  of  a  continent  upon  winds  and  rainfall  is 
seen  in  Asia.  Because  of  the  gi'cat  size  of  Asia  the  extreme  diff(n-ence 
of  tempcratiu'e  V^etween  summer  and  winter  may  amount  to  175°  in 
Siberia  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  to  100°  even  in  soutliern  Persia 
and  western  India.  The  difference's  between  the.  low  j)ressin'e  of 
smimier  and  the  high  pressiu-e  of  winter  are  correspondingly  extreme. 
The  variations  of  pressure  naturally  give  rise  to  strong  inblowing 
winds  in  sununer  and  outblowing  winds  in  winter.  These  are  best 
deA'eloi)e(l  in  India  and  are  called  monsoons.  In  Figs.  73  and  74 
notice  that  in  January  the  winds  in  the  southern  half  of  Asia  all  blow 
more  or  less  from  the  north.  Since  they  come  from  the  dry  interior 
there  is  practically  no  wintin-  rain  in  large  ])arts  of  India  and  China. 
In  spring  when  Asia  grows  hot  and  the  high  pressure  of  the  interior 
giv^es  ])lace  to  low,  the  outblowing  winds  weaken  and  are  replaced 
by  irregular  winds  and  calms.  Then  the  air  ])egins  to  move  in  from 
the  ocean,  and  soon  strong  south  or  southwest  winds  are  established. 
In  the  July  map  the  arrows  ])()int  in  almost  the  opposite  direction 
from  those  of  January,  and  the  winds  of  southern  Asia  all  l.)low  in- 
ward. 


236 


MANS   KELATIUN    TO   CLIMATE 


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THE   CLIMATE   OF   CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


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238  MANS   RELATION    TO   CLIMATE 

In  Tiidla  tlio  altoriiation  hot  worn  tho  northoast  monsoon  in  winter 
antl  the  soutliwcsl  monsoon  in  suinincr  is  r('nKU"kal)ly  r(>^ulav.  The 
peoi)l('  couni  u])()ii  iliis  r('uiil;u'il>'  so  nuicli  lliat.  foi'mcily  when  crude 
sailinj:;  A'esscls  were  tlic  chief  cavricM-s  of  commerce,  native  boats  from 
India  used  to  sail  to  Zan/ihai'  and  the  African  coast  each  winter  witli 
the  wind  at  theii-  barks.  Then  they  s])ent  se\-eral  months  in  tra(hnf>; 
or  in  icUeness  wait  in  ji  f(»r  the  southwest  monsoon  to  ])e  well  estal)lish{Ml, 
and  finally  with  \hc  wind  blowing  towanl  India  they  nicrril}'  came 
back  with  the  wind  as  favorable  as  on  the  outward  voyage.  Even 
now  the  natives  of  the  coral  islands  west  of  India  depend  on  the 
monsoons  to  take  them  to  the  mainland  and  back  again.  Their  sail- 
ing boats  arc  so  primitive  that  they  cannot  make  headway  against 
a  wind. 

How  the  Southwest  Monsoons  Bring  Prosperity  and  Health. — 
The  most  im])ortant  elTect  of  the  monsoons  is  the  rain.  In  winter 
only  the  southern  ti])  of  India  gets  nuich  rain,  for  th.at  is  the  only  tmrt 
of  the  country  where  the  northeast  traders  blow  from  the  sea  to  the 
land.  Elsewhere  drought  prevails  month  after  month  and  the 
jX'ople  long  for  the  sunnner  monsoon.  Before  it  comes  the  air  is 
burning  hot,  the  ground  is  ])arche(l,  and  almost  nothing  will  grow. 
Then  the  southwest  wind  begins  to  blow,  the  clouds  gather,  the  sky 
is  full  of  lightning,  the  thun(k'r  craslu^s,  rain  falls,  the  air  is  cooled, 
and  except  in  the  Indus  desert  the  land  is  ready  for  the  seed.  The 
people  welcome  the  rains  with  feasting  and  rejoicing,  for  their  timely 
coming  usually  gives  ])romise  of  good  croi)s.  INIoreover,  the  mon- 
soon rains  restore  the  lu>alth  of  tlic  sick,  check  epidemics,  and  bring 
the  most  healthful  i)art  of  the  year. 

B.  The  Effect  of  Relief 

(1)  How  Relief  J nflneneefi  Temperature. — The  effect  of  relic^f 
upon  the  four  climatic  element.s  is  more  easily  seen  than  is  the  eff(>ct 
of  land  and  sea.  Eveiyone  knows  that  t  he  tem])erat  \uv  changes  from 
the  ba.se  of  a  mount.ain  to  its  to]).  At  the  base  the  air  may  be  so 
warm  that  the  lower  slopes  are  sliroude(l  in  tree  ferns,  graceful  ])alms, 
twining  creepers,  and  other  tr()])i(al  growths.  Ilighei-  u])  the  vege- 
tation consists  of  the  bi'oad-leaved  tnn's  of  the  t('m])erate  zone.  At 
the  top  the  air  is  so  cold  that  wastes  of  naked  rock  lie  close  t  o  ]~)erpetual 
snow  hke  that  which  shrouds  the  Andes  e\-eii  at  t.he  (Mjuatoi-. 

In  tro])ical  lands  the  temperature  becomes  more  and  more  favor- 
able to  human  activity  u]i  to  a  height  of  al)out  oOOO  or  ev(Mi  lO.OOO 
feet.  Only  at  su<'li  alt  it.udes  does  t  lie  air  gain  sdiiiel  hiiig  of  t  he  st  inm- 
lating  (juality  which  is  so  Ix-neficial  to  health  and  eiiei-gv  in  tem- 


iHE   CLIMATE   OF  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS  239 

perate  lands.  This  is  shown  in  the  location  of  the  capitals  of  the 
South  American  republics.  Most  of  them  are  at  altitudes  of  five  to 
ten  thousand  feet,  that  of  IMexico  City,  for  example,  being  over 
7000.  Even  Brazil  has  decided  at  some  time  to  remove  the  capital 
from  beautiful  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  the  interior  on  the  Brazilian  plateau. 
Similarly  the  summer  resorts,  recreation  centers,  and  sanatoriuins 
for  white  people  in  India  are  ''hill  stations"  at  high  altitudes.  Simla, 
among  the  Himalayas,  7500  feet  above  the  sea,  is  becoming  more 
and  more  fully  the  summer  capital  of  the  country.  In  the  Pliilip- 
pines  the  hill  station  of  Baguio  is  gi'adually  assuming  a  similar  im- 
portance. Without  it  many  American  officials  and  their  families 
would  have  to  leave  the  islands  in  order  to  recover  their  health. 

In  high  latitudes,  on  the  contrary,  the  highlands  are  usually  too 
cold  to  support  many  people.  In  Norway,  for  example,  the  central 
highland  is  inhabited  only  l)y  a  few  Laps. 

(2)  Relief  and  Atmospheric  Pressure. — The  effect  of  rehef  upon 
atmospheric  pressure  is  important  chiefly  in  relation  to  rainfall.  As 
winds  blow  up  a  slope  the  air  expands  ])ccause  of  a  decrease  of  pres- 
sure.    Tlius  it  gi'ows  cool  and  gives  up  rain. 

(3)  Hoiv  Relief  Changes  the  Course  of  the  Winds. — One  of  the  most 
important  ways  in  which  relief  influences  climate  is  through  move- 
ments of  the  air.  This  is  because  highlands  and  mountains  often 
change  the  direction  of  currents  of  air,  and  prevent  certain  wuids 
from  blowing  in  protected  places.  For  instance,  the  maritime  Alps 
and  the  northern  Apennines  shield  the  Riviera  from  tlu;  cold  north 
winds.  Hence  this  region  on  the  ^Mediterranean  coast  north  of  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa  rarelj^  experiences  frost  even  in  January,  while  at 
Portland,  Maine,  in  the  same  latitude,  the  ground  is  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  snow  for  five  solid  months.  The  Swiss  and  Italian  Alps 
in  smiilar  fashion  pjrotect  the  Italian  Lake  region.  Lemons  and 
oHves  grow  there  in  the  latitude  of  Bi'iMo  or  even  St.  Paul  and 
Minneapolis.  The  niild  winters  and  beautiful  scenery  of  both  the 
Riviera  and  the  Lake  region  attract  pleasure  seekers  and  invalids 
from  all  over  Europe.  The  prc^sence  of  a  gi'eat  nmnber  of  people 
with  plenty  of  money  and  nothing  to  do  has  caused  ]\Ionte  Carlo,  in 
the  little  ])rincipality  of  Monaco,  to  become  the  most  famous  gam- 
bling resort  in  the  world.  All  these  results  are  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that  the  Alps  by  shutting  off  the  winds  from  the  north,  prevent  cold 
waves  like  those  which  in  our  own  country  swee])  across  the  plains 
and  sometimes  kill  the  orange  trees  even  as  far  south  as  I'loiida. 

The  Himalayas  in  the  same  way  cause  northern  India  to  be 
warmer  than  the  parts  of  China  in  the  same  latitude.  For  instance, 
Delhi,  the  capital  of  India  on  the  .luimia,  lies  in  about  the  sajne 


240  MAN'.'^    HKLATIOX    TO   CLIMATH 

latitudo  us  ?Iankow,  llic  (•iniiinrrcial  contcrof  China  on  Iho  Yanfjjtso, 
l)ut  its  .laimarv  tcniiicrat  uic  ;^^•(•^au;os  5S°  while  tliat  of  Hankow  is  :\9°. 
How  Relief  Permits  Orange  Growing  in  Northern  California. — 
The  effect  of  relief  upon  movements  of  the  air  and  thus  ii])on  tem])er- 
atiin'  e-an  be  seen  not  only  in  great  contrasts  like  that  between  India 
and  China,  but  in  small  contrasts  between  places  only  a  few  miles 
ajxirt.  For  instance,  in  California  at  the  western  base  of  the  Sierra 
Nevadius  in  a  latitude  as  far  north  as  l'hila(lel])hia,  there  are  many 
small  valleys  where  oranges  ripen,  although  in  otlier  valleys  close  at 
hand  they  will  not  ripen  at  all.  In  fact  the  oranges  ripen  earlier  in 
some  of  these  northern  valleys  than  in  the  region  around  Los  Angeles, 
400  miles  farther  south.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this,  but  all 
ai-e  cK)imected  with  the  relief.  (1)  The  valleys  are  so  located  that 
they  face  the  southwest  and  thus  receive^  abimdant  warm  sunshine. 
(2)  They  are  protected  from  cold  wintci-  winds  from  the  interior  by 
the  high  Sierras  innnediately  to  the  east.  (3)  ^^■hen  air  grows  cool 
at  night  it  contracts  and  therefore  becomes  comjiaratively  heavy. 
Hence  in  these  valleys  instead  of  remaining  and  becoming  so  cool  that 
frost  occurs,  the  air  drains  away  because  of  the  relief.  Its  place  is 
taken  bj^  air  which  is  waiinod  by  descending  from  above.  Where  the 
slopes  are  favorable  tlicic  may  be  no  frost,  although  ice  foiins  not  far 
away  in  the  hollows  where  the  cold  air  comes  to  rest.  Wherc^'er  there 
is  danger  of  frost  wise  farmers  take  advantage  of  air  drainage  if  their 
farms  are  on  slopes.  They  plant  their  peach  and  apple  orchards,  for 
exami)le,  on  the  warmest  slopes  where  late  spring  frosts  will  not  nip 
the  blossoms. 

The  effect  of  relief  upon  niovcinents  of  the  air  and  thus  u])on  tem- 
perature is  so  common  that  most  people  have  noticed  it.  At  night, 
for  instance,  one  feels  chilly  in  a  hollow,  and  then  is  sin-prised  that 
after  going  one  or  two  hundred  fe(>t  u])  hill  the  iemperaturc  becomes 
so  warm  that  one  fe(>ls  (juite  comfortable. 

How  Relief  Influences  Rainfall. — Aside  from  cy<'loni('  storms  and 
the  great  ('(juatorial  belt  of  low  pressure,  the  relief  of  the  lands  is 
the  chief  cause  of  rainfall.  When  a  wind  reaches  a  mountainous 
region  the  slopes  force;  it  to  rise.  As  we  have  seen  in  the  equatorial 
belt  of  low  pressure  and  elsewhere,  rising  air  expands,  cools,  and  loses 
part  of  its  capacity  to  hold  moisture.  Hence  clouds  forni,  and  rain  or 
snow  falls.  The  ]iroce.ss  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  69.  A  good  example  is 
seen  in  the  wi  ^Icin  Tnited  States.  The  shaded  part  of  Fig.  80  shows 
the  altitude  of  the  land  from  tlu^  Pacific  Ocean  eastward  to  central 
Nevada.  >Miere  the  west(>rly  winds  laden  with  water  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean  strike  the  low  hills  at  San  I'Yancisco  the  rainfall  in- 
creases from  18.5  inches  to  about  23  iKX'ause  llie  air  rises  and  hence 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


241 


grows  cool.  Beyond  the  hills  the  rainfall  decreases  a  little,  but  at 
the  foot  of  the  Sierras,  where  the  air  once  more  ascends,  it  increases 
rapidly  to  more  than  50  inches.  Beyond  the  mountains  part  of  the 
air  descends  down  the  eastern  slope.  The  descent  compresses  and 
warms  it,  so  that  its  capacity  for  moisture  increases  and  it  sucks  up 
moisture  instead  of  giving  it  out.  Hence  at  the  eastern  base  of  the 
SieiTas  there  would  be  no  rainftdl  were  it  not  for  occasional  cyclonic 
storms  which  raise  the  air  to  high  levels.  Thus  Reno  gets  G  inches  of 
rain  and  Wadsworth  a  little  over  4. 

Regions  like  Nevada,  lying  to  the  leeward  of  the  mountains  and 
thus  sheltered  from  rain-bearing  winds,  are  said  to  be  in  the  "rain- 
shadow."  Places  in  a  rain-shadow  get  little  rain,  just  as  places  in  an 
ordinary  shadow  get  httle  sunUght.     The  rain-shadow  often  causes 


Coast  Great  Valley 

Range  of  California 


Sierra  Nevada      Great  Basin 
54.2    I  I  j  The  Shading  is 

*"•"     1    ,,^>^    .~LA.  '  in  proportion  to 

^'•^    I     J  yJ^r-CS-y?^  "'■  It,     I   1  9      ,  o  the  amount  of 
'    X.^Cwiii/\  Si.'"".:;*-''      ^2  rainfall 


Island 
in  Paciflc 


NevadpT 


Great  Valley 

Fig.  so.— Effect  of  Altitude  on  Rainfall. 


Great  Basin 


deserts  where  scraggly  little  bushes  at  wide  intervals  replace  the 
splendid  forests  whicii  lie  at  the  same  altitude  on  the  windward  side. 
The  Wonderful  Effect  of  the  Himalayas  on  Rainfall. — The  Him- 
alayas furnish  the  most  remarkable  example  of  the  effect  of  moim- 
tains  on  rain.  The  southerly  monsoon  winds  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
brmg  an  abundant  supply  of  water  which  they  deposit  as  they  rise 
over  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains.  At  a  i:)lace  calkHl  ( "lun-ra- 
pimji,  4000  feet  above  the  sea  and  not  far  north  of  Calcutta,  the  aver- 
age rainfall  each  year  is  466  inches.  Compare  this  with  the  part  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  where  the  average  is 
only  a  little  over  40  inches.  In  1861  the  enormous  amount  of  018 
inches,  or  76^  feet,  actually  fell  at  ('herra]nmji.  ]\Iore  than  a  thiixl 
of  this,  or  372  inches,  fell  in  .July  alone,  and  42\  inches  in  one  day. 
Think  of  it.  As  much  rain  in  one  day  as  most  Ajuericans  see  in  a  year. 
The  heavy  rains  wash  all  the  soil  from  the  slopes  and  leave  onlj'  naked 
rock,  practically  bare  of  vegetation.  Yet  in  the  flat  places  there  is 
a  perfect  tangle  of  tn>es  and  vines,  and  plants  grow  as  much  in  a 


242 


MAN'S    in;i,.\'ll()X     I'd    ('l.l.MA'I'l': 


.3 

a 

a 


THE  CLIMATE   OF   CONTINENTS   AND   OCEANS  243 

month  as  they  do  with  us  in  a  year,  for  even  during  the  rainy  period 
there  is  some  sunshine  ahnost  eveiy  day. 

At  higher  altitudes  on  the  same  side  of  the  Himalayas  the  rainfall 
greatly  diminishes.  The  air  has  lost  so  much  moisture  that  it  cannot 
give  u])  much.  Hence  here,  as  on  the  ^Yind^vard  slo])e  of  every  moun- 
tain, the  rainfall  increases  only  up  to  a  certain  level  after  which  it 
decreases.  Beyond  the  Himalayas  the  air  has  been  so  robbed  of 
moisture  that  vast  regions  in  central  Asia  are  deserts.  They  Ue  in 
the  world's  greatest  rain-shadow. 


Questions,  Exercises,  and  Problems 

1.  From  Figs.  71  and  72  (showing  average  temperature  in  January  and  July) 
find  out  the  difference  of  temperature  between  summer  and  winter  at  latitude 
40°  N.  in  (a)  the  central  United  States,  (6)  your  home,  (c)  Kansas  City,  (d) 
Bermuda  Islands,  (e)  Irkutsk.  In  which  place  do  you  find  the  greatest  con- 
trast? The  least?  Write  out  an  explanation,  and  illustrate  it  from  other  parts 
of  the  maps. 

2.  How  Climate  Influences  the  Density  of  Population. — Climate  largely  deter- 
mines the  number  of  peoj)le  in  a  given  region.  It  does  this  chiefly  by  control- 
ling the  food  supply,  ^^'here  the  climate  is  too  cold,  too  dry,  or  too  wet  for  food- 
producing  plants  the  population  is  generally  scanty.  The  only  imi)ortant  ex- 
cejitions  are  regions  where  mining,  manufacturing,  commerce,  or  other  special 
reasons  cause  people  to  bring  food  from  a  distance.  In  order  to  understand  how 
climate  through  its  effect  on  vegetation  influences  the  density  of  population  com- 
pare Figs.  71  and  72  with  Fig.  38  and  then  also  compare  Fig.  81  with  Fig.  37. 

(a)  In  your  note  book  make  a  list  of  regions  where  sparse  population  results 
from  low  temperature  as  in  northern  Canada;  from  aridity,  as  in  Arabia;  from 
heavy  rainfall  combined  with  tropical  heat,  as  in  the  Amazon  Valley.  Arrange 
your  lists  under  the  following  headings: 


Regions  of  Sparse  Poptilation 
resulting  from 

1.  Low  Temperature.     2.  Aridity.     3.  Heavy  Rainfall  and  Tropical  Heat. 

(6)  Make  a  statement  as  to  the  relative  sizes  of  the  three  kinds  of  regions  with 
scanty  population  for  the  world  as  a  whole,  (c)  What  exceptions  do  you  find  to 
the  statement  that  "arid  regions  contain  a  sparse  population?"  {d)  How  do 
you  explain  these  exceptions?  (e)  What  exceptions  do  you  find  to  the  statement 
that  "heavj'  rainfall  combined  with  trojiical  heat  causes  a  sparse  jjopulation?" 
(/)  How  do  you  explain  these? 

3.  (a)  Next  make  lists  of  the  regions  where  the  population  has  a  density  of 
100  or  more  per  square  mile.  Arrange  under  headings  as  in  2a.  After  studying 
the  regions  in  each  list  add  as  a  part  of  each  heading  the  conditions  of  rainfall 
and  temperature  that  apply  in  general  to  the  regions  listed  in  the  columns. 

(b)  Write  out  a  statement  as  to  the  kind  of  temperature  and  rainfall  most 
favorable  to  a  dense  population. 


244 


MAN'S   REI^VTION   TO  CLIMATE 


>;  sa 


THE   CLIiMATE   OF  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS  245 


i^f^fir^isN 


St.Paul,  Minn. 


San  Francisco,  Cul. 

'f. 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

/ 
/ 

X.^                  / 

40 
:iO 

^^^^ 

K^   / 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


Los  Angeles,  Cal 


Fig.  83. — Avcrago  Moiiilily  Temperature  and  Rainfall  of  Typical  Placce  in  North 

America. 


2-lG 


MAN'S   KELATIUX    TO   CLIMATE 


l^l-lsl» 


Tomsk 


r''\ 


1    i     ?.  |<     R    4 

Vladivostok 

''""X 

/ 

\ 

v 

\'ienna 

in 

_  .^i' \^  _ 

^^^^^^^^B 

Fia.  84. — Average  Monflily  Tcniperattiro  and  TJainfall  (if  Typical  Places  in  (lie 

Old  W'urld. 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


247 


4.  Why  is  it  that  in  Ireland  the  January  temperature  scarcely  falls  below  40° 
and  in  July  the  average  is  only  59°  in  the  north  and  62°  in  the  south,  while  in 
Kamchatcka,  in  the  same  latitudes  as  Ireland,  winter  temperatures  of  40°  below 
zero  are  common,  and  in  summer  64°  is  experienced. 

5.  Fig.  82  shows  the  main  mode  of  life  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  From  a 
comparison  of  this  map  with  Figs.  71,  72,  78,  and  79,  make  a  table  having  the 
following   headings: 


A 

B 

C 

D 

IMode  of  Life. 

Regions  where 
mode  prevails. 

Temperature  con- 
ditions  (1)  Win- 
ter, (2)  Summer. 

Rainfall  conditions 
(1)     Winter,      (2) 
Summer. 

On  the  basis  of  this  table,  what  do  you  infer  as  to  the  effect  of  climate  on  man's 
mode  of  life? 

6.  From  the  climatic  mai)s  in  this  book  and  from  relief  maps  in  an  atlas, 
determine  the  type  of  equiiiment  needed  for  a  camping  trip  in  or  near  the  follow- 
ing places  during  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July:  (a)  Spitzbergen;  (b)  the 
Ganges  Delta;  (c)  Bagdad;  {d)  the  center  of  southern  New  Zealand;  (e)  Para; 
(/)  Phoenix,  Ariz.;  {g)  Tomsk;  (/;)  Hong  Kong.  Decide  for  each  place  the  season 
when  travel  would  be  the  most  pleasant,  easy  and  interesting,  and  give  your  rea- 
sons. From  Fig.  82  and  from  other  sources,  decide  what  sort  of  accormnodations 
for  travellers  you  would  find  in  the  smaller  centers  of  poj^ulation. 

7.  A.  Figs.  83  and  84  illustrate  the  conditions  of  temperature  and  rainfall 

in  t\^pical  parts  of  North  America  and  Eurasia,  together  with  North 
Africa.  Select  diagrams  which  furnish  typical  illustrations  of  as 
many  as  possible  of  the  following  climatic  types:  (1)  cyclonic 
storms;  (2)  monsoons;  (3)  continental  interiors  in  zone  of  westerlies; 
(4)  subtropical  regions;  (5)  trade  winds;  (6)  tropical  interiors. 

For  each  diagram  make  a  table  showing  the  approximate  temperature 
and  rainfall  for  each  month.  Explain  how  the  diagrams  differ  from 
what  would  be  found  in  the  same  latitude  on  a  simplifietl  globe  such 
as  is  described  in  Chapter  X. 
C.  Among  the  diagrams  of  Figs.  83  and  84,  ])ick  out  four  in  wliicli  the 
effect  of  relief  is  evident.     Explain. 

In  Figs.  83  and  84  classify  the  diagrams  according  to  tlie  following: 

I.  The  mode  of  life  as  shown  in  Fig.  82. 

II.  The  density  of  population  as  shown  in  Fig.  38. 
Explain  the  relation  between    Figs.  83  and  84  on  the  one    hand  and 

Figs.  38  and  82  on  the  other. 


B. 


8.  A. 


B. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CLIMATE  AND  HUMAN  ENERGY 

How  Climate  Affects  Man  Directly. — Man's  hoalt.h  and  onorgy 
dopcnd  on  climate  and  wc^athcr  more  than  on  any  otlior  sinfj;lo  factor. 
The  well-known  contrast  Ix^twcen  the  enersotic  ])eo])le  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  and  the  la/y  inhaMtaiit.s  of  the  ti'o])ics  is  (lu(>  to  climate. 
It  is  imi>ossil>le  for  a  ])eo])le  to  advanc(>  ra])idly  in  civilization  when 
handica])])ed  hy  an  enervating  tropical  climate,  and  even  the  climate 
of  intermediate  rejiions  like  Pei-sia,  tends  strongly  to  kee])  people  back- 
ward. 

The  best  way  to  nndei"stand  how  climate^  influences  health  and 
energ>^  is  to  consider  how  the  weather  caiises  our  own  condition  to 
vary  from  day  to  day  and  season  to  season.  Although  some  ])e()])le 
are  more  affected  than  others,  everyone  is  influenced  by  temperatin*e, 
hujiiidity,  wind,  sunshine^  barometric  pressure^  and  perhaps  other 
factors  such  as  atm<)si)heric  electricity  and  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  air.  On  days  wIkmi  all  these  factors  are  favorable,  people  feel 
stioiig  and  hopeful;  theii'  bodies  arc  capable  of  unusual  exertion,  and 
their  minds  are  alert  and  accurate.  If  all  the  factors  are  unfavorable, 
ix'ople  feel  inefficient  and  dull;  their  i^hj-sical  weaknesses  are  exagger- 
ated; it  is  hard  to  concentrate  the  rnind;  the  day's  work  drags  slowly; 
and  ])e()ple  go  to  IhhI  at  night  with  a  tired  feeling  of  not  having 
accomplished  much.  Hence  in  vaiiable  climates  like  that  of  the 
United  States  ])eo])le"s  ])hysi(;d  and  mental  energj^  keep  changing 
from  day  to  day  and  season  to  season.  Somc^thnes  one  f(>els  abnost  as 
inert  as  if  he  lived  within  the  tro])ics,  but  soon  a  change  comes  and  one 
again  feels  the  health  and  energ"^'  which  make  it  possible  to  work  hard 
and  think  clearly. 

How  People's  Health  and  Energy  are  Measured. — There  are 
many  ways  of  measuring  the  variations  in  the  health  and  energy  of  a 
connnunity  from  season  to  season.  P(>o])le's  energ>'  can  be  measured 
by  stud>'ing  what  they  accom])lish  in  cases  where  they  do  the  same 
thing  day  after  day  as  among  ])i('ce  woi'kei's  in  factories.  Again, 
a  good  measui'c  of  the  enei-gy  of  individuals  is  found  in  the  test- 
ing appai'atus  used  in  gyjimasiums.  Or  the  health  of  children,  for 
instance,  can  be  meas\n(  il  hy  i-ecording  their  rate  of  gi'owth  in  height, 
and  weight.     l"he  health  of  the  whole  commimity  can  be  measured 

248 


CLIMATE  AND   HUMAN  ENERGY  249 

by  the  number  of  deaths  from  disease.  Or  again  the  health  and 
energy  of  the  mind  can  be  measured  by  finding  out  the  difference 
from  week  to  week  in  the  work  done  by  school  chihh-cn,  bank  ck'rks, 
or  other  people  whose  occupations  demand  brain  work.  All  these 
ways  of  measurement,  as  well  as  many  others,  lead  to  the  same  con- 
clusion. In  a  variable  climate  such  as  that  of  the  United  States 
people's  health  and  energy  go  through  a  regular  series  of  changes 
each  year. 

The  Way  in  Which  People's  Physical  Energy  Varies  from  Season 
to  Season. — The  variations  in  people's  strength  from  month  to  month 
are  so  hnportant  and  teach  so  much  a])out  the  distril)ution  of  health 
and  energy  throughout  the  world  that  we  may  well  study  them 
closely.  Let  us  consider  first  how  physical  strength  varies  during  the 
coui-se  of  the  year  in  the  great  section  extending  from  southern  New 
England  and  New  York  westward  to  the  Rocky  IMoimtains.  October 
is  usually  the  best  month.  At  that  time  people  feel  like  working 
hard ;  thoy  get  up  in  the  morning  full  of  energ\^,  and  go  at  their  work 
quickly  and  without  hesitation;  they  walk  briskly  to  business  or 
work;  and  play  with  ecjual  Aigor.  Headaches,  colds,  indigestion,  and 
other  minor  illnesses  are  fewer  than  at  other  seasons;  there  are  also 
fewer  serious  illnesses,  so  that  the  doctors  have  less  than  usual  to  do, 
and  the  number  of  deaths  is  less  than  at  any  other  time  of  jxar. 

Then  as  cold  weather  comes  on,  the  workers  accomplish  less,  ill 
health  becomes  more  and  more  common,  the  physicians  are  kept 
busy,  and  deaths  increase.  By  January  or  February  the  gc^neral 
efficiency  and  health  may  have  dropped  20  or  30  per  cent.  In  a  cold 
winter  these  bad  conditions  may  last  through  March,  l)ut  ordinarily 
there  is  an  unprovement  as  soon  as  the  air  begins  to  become  warmer. 
The  improvement  continues  through  the  spring  until  in  May  or  early 
June  the  conditions  of  health  and  energj^  are  almost  as  good  as  in 
October.  Th(ui  with  the  arrival  of  hot  weather  an  unfavorable  change 
begins.  By  the  middle  of  July  peo])le's  health  and  en(n-g>'  are  often 
no  better  than  in  January  and  may  be  woi"se.  The  diseases  are  not 
cjuite  the  same  as  in  the  winter,  since  stomach  troubles,  for  instance, 
are  morc^  common  than  colds.  Moreover,  the  feeling  of  laziness 
that  comes  over  people  in  hot  weather  is  not  ciuite  the  same  as  the  sort 
of  suffocating  stupid  feeling  that  one  has  in  winter.  Yet  the  effect  on 
work  and  health,  and  the  result  in  low  efficiency  and  many  deaths 
are  the  same. 

How  the  Effect  of  the  Seasons  Varies  with  Latitudes. — If  we  study 
the  pe()])le  of  diff(>rent  latitudes  we  find  that  the  periods  of  greatest 
and  least  energy'  occiu'  at  different  times.  In  northern  Maine  or 
Minnesota,  and  still  more  in  Canada,  there  is  only  one  unfavorable! 


250  MANS   REL.\T1UN    TU    CLLMATE 

poriod.  tlio  wintor.  Pooplo  aro  at  tlioir  host  from  July  to  Roptomlx^r; 
thou  their  hcaUh  and  cflicicncy  dccHiu'  stcaiHly  as  llic  cold  winter 
comes  on,  and  in  .lanuaiy  and  I'ehruaiy  reach  a  lo\v(>r  level  than 
durino;  the  same  months  in  New  York,  Chicajio,  or  St.  Louis,  for  ex- 
ample. Farther  south,  as  we  have  just  seen,  tlu>re  are  four  periods, 
two  of  good  health  in  spring  and  fall,  and  two  of  bad  health  in  summer 
and  winter,  but  the  contrast  between  the  <iood  and  bad  is  not  so  great 
as  in  latitude  a  little  higher  or  lower.  In  still  lower  latitudes  there  are 
once  more  only  two  i)erio<ls,  but  in  such  warm  regions  the  long  smn- 
mer  is  the  unfavorable  time,  while  the  short  winter  is  favorable. 
In  central  Florida,  for  example,  the  long  warm  sunnner  shows  a 
pronounced  decline  in  health  lasting  about  six  months,  while  the 
short  winter  is  much  the  best  ])art  of  the  yeai-.  The  loss  of  health 
and  strength  due  to  continued  warm  weather  l)ecomes  more  pro- 
nounced the  farther  one  goes  toward  the  equator. 

In  the  other  continents  similar  conditions  prevail.  In  Europe,  in 
the  latitude  of  Central  France  and  Southern  (lermany,  the  seasonal 
variations  of  health  and  strength  are  much  the  same  as  in  Boston, 
New  York,  Cleveland,  and  Detroit.  That  is,  people  are  most  healthy 
and  strong  in  October  and  early  Novemlxn-  and  again  in  jNIay  and 
early  June,  while  they  are  weakest  and  most  subject  to  disease  in 
January,  Fel^ruary,  and  early  i\Iarch,  and  again  in  July  or  August. 
Therc,  as  here,  great  variations  occur  from  year  to  3'ear,  according  to 
whether  the  weather  is  unusually  hot  or  cold,  rainy  or  diy,  variable  or 
monotonous.  Farther  north,  for  example,  in  Scotland,  Scandinavia, 
and  Finland,  the  smmner  is  the  best  time  of  the  whole  3'ear  and  the 
winter  the  woret.  To  the  south,  on  the  contraiy,  in  Italy,  Spain  and 
Greece,  the  harmful  effect  of  the  winter  decreases  and  that  of  summer 
increases,  until  linally  on  the  south  side  of  the  Mediterranean  the 
winter  is  much  the  best  time  of  the  whole  year,  while  the  long  sum- 
mer gi'oatl}'  diminishes  people's  efficiency  and  increases  disease  and 
deaths. 

How  the  Periods  of  Mental  and  Physical  Activity  Differ. — In 
general  p(H>ple's  mental  activity  varies  from  season  to  st^ason  in  the 
same  way  as  physical  activity',  but  there  is  an  interesting  tlilTcrence  in 
one  respect.  In  the  latitude  of  New  York,  for  example,  people  do 
the  ln'st  brain  work  about  the  end  of  Novem])er  or  b(>ginning  of 
Decembc^r,  that  is,  a  month  or  six  weeks  after  their  physical  strength 
is  greatest.  In  the  spring,  on  the.  cojitrary,  the  best  mental  work  is 
done  in  ^larch,  a  month  or  two  before  the  ])hysical  strength  reaches 
its  maximum,  'i'liis  means  that  ])e()])le's  minds  are  most  stimulated 
in  w'eather  somewhat  cooler  than  that  which  most  stimulates  their 
bodies. 


CLIMATE  AND  HUMAN  ENERGY  251 

The  Optimum  Temperature. — ^Throe  conditions  of  climate  are  of 
special  importance  in  their  influence  on  health  and  energj^:  (1) 
temperature;  (2)  humidity;  and  (3)  varial)iUty.  For  each  of  these 
there  is  a  certain  most  favoral>]e  or  ideal  condition  which  is  called 
the  optimum.  Every  species  of  plant  and  animal  has  an  optimum 
temperature  at  which  it  thrives  most  vigorously,  and  man  is  no  ex- 
ception. The  optimmn  may  vary  a  little  from  indiviihial  lo  individual, 
but  not  much.  It  is  more  likely  to  vary  from  one  typ(i  of  activity  to 
another.  For  physical  health,  among  the  white  race,  the  l)est  tem- 
p(n-ature  is  an  average  of  not  far  fi-om  ()4°  F.  for  day  and  night 
together.  In  other  words,  people's  health  and  strength  are  gn^itest 
when  the  thermometer  droj:)s  to  about  56°  to  ()0°  at  night  and  rises 
to  somewhere  between  68  and  72°  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  For 
mental  activity  the  optimum  temperature  appears  to  be  a  good  deal 
lower  than  for  physical,  being  probably  al)Out  40°.  As  a  rule,  peojjle's 
minds  are  most  alert  and  inventive,  people  do  their  best  thinking  and 
planning  and  have  the  best  judgment  when  the  thermometer  falls 
about  to  freezing  at  night  and  rises  to  perhaps  45°  oi'  50°  by  day. 

All  human  progress  depends  on  activity  of  both  mind  and  body; 
an  active  engineer,  for  example,  is  needed  to  plan  a  system  of  water 
works,  an  active  day  laborer  to  dig  the  ditches.  Hence  the  best 
climates  appear  to  be  those  with  an  average  temperature  of  not  fa!' 
from  40°  during  the  winter  and  of  about  64°  during  the  sununcM-, 
but  other  conditions,  such  as  variability,  humidity,  and  rainfall 
may  alter  this.  Southeastern  England  comes  lu^arer  to  this  ideal 
condition  than  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

The  Optimum  Humidity. — When  the  temperature  averages  about 
64°  and  is  therefore  close  to  the  oiitinnim  foi-  health,  the  best  condition 
of  moistiu'e  seems  to  be  a  relative  hiunidity  of  about  80  per  c(Mit  for  day 
and  night  together.  This  means  that  the  air  contains  about  80  per 
cent  as  much  moisture  as  it  is  capable  of  holding  at  that  particular 
temperature.  When  the  air  grows  cool  at  night,  its  capacity  for 
moisture  becomes  less.  Hence  the  water  vapor  that  it  contains 
increases  relatively  when  conii)ar(>d  with  what  it  is  capable  of  con- 
taining, and  at  length  becomes  100  per  cent  at  a  temperature  of 
58°.  Then  dew  begins  to  form,  since  the  air  must  give  up  some 
of  the  moisture.  By  day,  on  the  ofluM'  hand,  when  the  lliciiiioincfer 
rises  to  70°  the  air  contains  only  about  65  per  cent  as  nnich  moisture 
as  it  might  if  it  were  saturated.  AMien  the  relative  humidity  at 
noon,  however,  falls  nuich  below  50i)erc('nt,  the  delicate  mucous 
membrances  of  the  nose  and  throat  begin  to  sutler,  the  skin  is  likely 
to  be  too  dry,  p(>ople  tend  to  become  nervous,  and  the  giMieral  con- 
ditions of  heallli  decline.     It   nuist  l)e  renienibci'ed,   lio\vc\-cr,   that 


252  MANS  liKLA'lloN    TO  ('LIMAI'E 

the  outdoor  life  wliich  is  |)ossil)l('  in  a  (lr\-  cliinato  makes  up  for  much 
of  the  liann  due  to  diyness.  If  people  wen;  wise  they  would  have 
as  iiiuch  outdoor  lite  and  outdoor  air  in  moist  climates  as  in  dry. 

In  warm  weather,  such  as  we  have  in  summer,  hifi;h  iuimitlity 
coupled  with  hi^h  tenipeiature  is  \-ei-v  harmful,  as  is  shown  hy  the 
extreme  death-rate  in  .la|)an  duiiiiir  Aufi;ust  and  September,  w  hen  the 
hot,  humid  summer  pioduees  its  full  effect.  On  the  other  hand,  ex- 
trem-e  dryness  is  also  haimful  in  summer.  Some  of  the  worst  colds, 
especially  those  of  a  ratanhal  nature,  come  from  extreme  dryness  in 
hot  \veatlier.  Oddly  enough  tlu^  effect  of  hot  and  cold  weather  is  in 
some  respects  the  same,  for  both  increase  neryousness  and  make  the 
mucuous  membranes  sensitive,  thus  f?iving  bacteria  a  chance  to  grow. 

How  to  Remedy  Indoor  Dryness  in  Winter. — In  ^vintcr  such  desert- 
like chyness  is  Acry  common  inside  our  houses  and  is  one  of  the  gi'eat 
reasons  why  our  work  falls  off  and  disease  and  death  increase  in  the 
community.  By  heating  our  houses  we  successfully  overcome  the 
effect  of  low  temperature,  but  at  the  same  time  we  make  the  air  so 
dry  that  it  is  very  harmful.  In  spite  of  the  common  idea  to  the 
contrarj^,  a  damp  winter  month  with  an  average  temperature  of  80°, 
for  example,  is  more  healthful  than  a  dry  one  of  the  same  temperature 
pr()\-ided  the  dampness  is  not  too  monotonous.  Hence  every  wise 
householder  takes  pains  to  see  that  there  are  large  water  pans  in  the 
furnace  and  that  they  are  fitted  with  wicks  or  other  devices  for  giving 
a  large  surface  for  evaporation.  ( )r  if  steam  or  hot  water  is  used 
for  heating,  he  puts  on  the  radiators  some  device  such  as  pans  of 
water  with  cloths  suspended  in  them  so  that  they  draw  out  the  water 
and  cause  enough  to  be  evaporated  to  raise  the  relative  hmuidit.y  in 
the  house  to  at  least  50  per  cent  and  preferably  60  per  cent  or  70  per 
cent,  if  this  does  not  cause  wet  walls,  instead  of  30  per  cent  or  less, 
as  IB  now  the  case  in  cold  weather.  When  this  is  done,  the  temper- 
ature can,  and  must,  ])e  kept  between  G4°  and  68°,  where  it  lielongs, 
for  moist  air  feels  warmer  than  dry  air  at  the  same  temperature. 

The  Optimum  Variability. — A  climate  may  be  ideal  in  tempera- 
ture and  in  humidity,  and  yd  be  by  no  means  the  best  kind.  This 
Ls  Ixicause  all  li\'ing  creatures  seem  to  need  change.  If  animals  are 
fed  absolutely  the  same  food  day  after  day  they  do  not  thrive  nearly 
so  w(>ll  as  if  their  fo<jd  is  varied.  So,  too,  if  ])lants  are  kept  at  the 
optlmiun  tempcn-ature  day  after  day,  tliey  will  not  gi'ow  so  well  as 
those  which  enjoy  fii-st  a  warmer  and  tlian  a  lower  tem])erat.ure. 
Man  is  also  extnunely  sensitive  in  this  res])ect.  In  general  a  rise  of 
tcmiXTature  harms  him  and  a  dro])  stimulates  liim,  but  a  cond^ina- 
tion  of  frequent  changes  in  both  directions  does  him  much  more  good 
than  uniformity.     In  Kew  York  City,  for  exani])le,  a  droji  in  tem- 


CLIMATE   AND   HUMAN   ENERGY  253 

perature  causes  an  increase  in  people's  acti\ity  l)()th  in  summer 
and  winter  and  a  c()rres]i<)ndin^"  dro])  in  the  tlealh-rate. 

Why  a  Drop  in  Temperature  is  Beneficial. — It  is  easy  enough  to 
understand  how  a  drop  of  temperature  is  beneficial  in  summer,  for 
then  it  causes  an  a]ii)roach  to  the  optinnmi.  In  winter,  however,  the 
drop  takes  the  temi)erature  away  from  the  optimum.  How  then  can 
a  cold  wave  ])e  helpful?  It  seems  to  act  in  two  ways:  (1)  When 
people  are  out  in  the  air  while  the  temperature^  is  fallino;  it  acts  like  a 
cold  bath.  Unless  the  change  is  too  great  it  increases  the  rapidity 
of  the  circulation  causing  a  healthy  glow.  (2)  When  people  ai-e  within 
doors  a  tlrop  of  temperature  in  winter  is  stinmlating  l)ecausc  it  causes 
the  air  insider  the  house  to  vary  in  temperature.  The  fiu'nace  fails  to 
preserve  that  uniform  temperature  which  so  many  people  wrongly 
suppose  to  be  desirable.  Thus  the  rooms  ])ecome  first  a  little  cool  and 
then  grow  warm,  giving  variations  which  are  beneficial  to  health. 

Why  Cold  Spells  are  Harmful. — While  a  cold  snap  is  beneficial, 
a  cold  spell  is  harmful  for  three  reasons:  (1)  The  au-  in  the  house 
maintains  a  nearly  stationary  temperature.  (2)  It  l)ecomes  ex- 
cessively diy.  (3)  People  keep  their  houses  too  warm.  This  is 
because  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  air  makes  them  feel  (^hih}',  for  it 
causes  rapid  evaporation  from  the  skin.  Even  a  moving  door  causes 
a  perceptil)le  and  chilly  draft.  Hence  the  furnaces  are  pushed  to  the 
limit,  and  people  who  feel  comfortable  at  65°  in  the  fall  now  want  a 
teniperature  of  72°  to  75°.  These  three  conditions  make  peo])le  feel 
stupid,  nei"\^ous,  and  cross;  manj^  catch  cold  or  suffer  from  headaches; 
others  become  sick;  and  the  conummity  sufYei-s  more  than  the  usual 
number  of  deaths. 

Why  Cyclonic  Storms  are  So  Helpful, — Changes  in  other  respects 
as  well  as  in  temperature  are  highly  desirabk\  For  instance,  steady 
sunshine  is  not  nearly  so  gootl  as  a  ])('ri()d  of  smishine  and  tluni  one 
of  clouds  and  rain.  But  too  nuich  clouiUness  also  leads  to  ill  health 
and  to  inefficiency.  Wliat  is  needed  is  frcciuent  changes  of  all  sorts, 
not  too  extrenie,  but  quite  fre(|uent.  I'or  this  reason  the.  countries 
in  the  it'gions  of  cyclonic  storms  are  ixirticularly  fortunate.  They 
enjoy  changes  of  weather  ev(>ry  f(^w  days. 

Take  a  week  in  early  April  as  an  exam))l(\  On  the  fii-st  day  there 
is  frost  in  the  morning,  but  a  wai'm  s\m  in  u  brilliant  blue,  sky  raises 
the  tiiermometer  to  above  50°  at  noon,  and  ])eo])le  begin  to  talk  of 
tluiir  gai'dens.  That  night  there  is  no  hint,  of  frost  even  in  the  coldest 
valleys.  The  next  day  a  dry  wind  blows  fi-om  the  sout.h;  tlu^  tem- 
perature reaches  70°  by  noon;  the  robins  cliir))  on  the  lawn;  the  buds 
on  the  lilacs  swell  visibly;  and  ])eo])le  wish  ihcy  had  ])ut  on  their 
sununer  clothes.    The  third  dav  the  wind  has  shil'tcd  to  t  he  .■^oul  hcast. 


254  MANS    1{KLATI()X    TO   CLIMATE 

and  tlio  air  tli()up;li  si  ill  warin  is  soft,  with  inoistiiro  and  fools  much 
picasantor  tlian  the  day  Ix-foro.  All  day  clouds  conio  and  j^o.  the 
Itcautilul  liillou>'  clouds  of  s])riii.ir.  Several  times  little  showei-s  fall, 
but  after  a  few  minutes  tlie  sun  comes  out  a}:;ain.  People  say  to 
one  another,  "April  showei-s  brinu"  May  flowei-s."  In  the  afternoon 
a  warm  rain  bejiins,  but  by  morninu;  the  wind  has  shifted  to  the  east 
and  the  air  is  cooler.  Tiien  toward  eveninjj;  a  violent  fziaie  blows  from 
the  north,  the  thermometer  dr()]is  5°  an  hour,  and  the  «rround  is  cov- 
ered with  snow  to  a  de])th  of  an  inch  or  two.  That  nif^ht  the  clouds 
ilisapiH-ar  b.efore  a  strong  northwest  wind,  the  stai-s  shine  like  twin- 
klinjj;  })oints  in  a  sky  of  crystal,  and  it  s(>(mus  as  if  winter  nad  retm-ned. 
Yet  the  next  morning  the  air  is  l)racini>;  ratluM-  than  cold;  the  lilac 
buds  are  larger  then  ever,  and  when  the  warm  sun  melts  tlie  snow  the 
grass  appeal's  suri)risingly  gTeeii.  And  so  the  weather  comes  back  to 
where  it  started.  Within  five  days  the  temperature^  has  \aried  from 
almost  arctic  to  abnost  tropical;  the  hmnidity  has  ranged  from  that 
of  deserts  to  that  of  mid  ocer.n;  and  the  wind  has  changed  from  the 
zephyrs  of  the  hoise  lalit\ides  to  the  gales  of  tlu'  roaring  forties.  Such 
are  the  habits  of  the  weather  in  some  of  the  regions  ol'  cyclonic  storms. 

Where  is  the  Ideal  Climate  for  Man's  Work? — We  are  now 
ready  to  ask  ourselves  wluit  parts  of  the  world  have  the  best  climate. 
Remember  that  the  best  climate  has  three  chief  characteristics: 
(1)  It  must  have  cool  but  not  cold  winters,  as  a  mental  stinmlus, 
and  warm,  but  not  hc^t  sunnners  as  a  physical  stimulus.  (2)  It  must 
have,  a  fairly  high  humidity  excei)t  in  warm  weather.  (3)  It  must  have 
frequent  changes  of  weather.  No  region  on  earth  fully  sat  isf ies  all 
three  of  these  requirements.  Southeastern  England  and  the  neigh- 
boring ])arts  of  continental  Europe  come  nearest  to  the  ideal.  Their 
chief  limitation  is  that  changes  of  weath(>r  are  not  ciuite  frecjuent  and 
strong  enough,  and  there  are  sometunes  long  peiiods  of  monot.onous 
damjmess.  Earther  east,  in  Germany,  the  conditions  are  nuich  like 
those  of  the  southern  N(nv  England  States  and  Ncnv  York  exce])t  that 
changes  are  not  (juite  so  numei-ous  nor  so  extreme.  The  iioilh.ern 
United  St-ates  east  of  the  Hocky  ^Mountains  is  almost  iileal  in  its 
number  of  storms  and  its  humidity,  but  its  winters  are  too  cold  and  its 
Kunnners  often  loo  hot.  The  western  coast  of  the  bnited  States,  on 
the  contrary,  is  abnost  ideal  as  t.o  teini)erature  and  has  a  favorable 
degi'oe  of  humidity  jnost  of  the  tinu^  It  does  not  have  enough  storms, 
however,  and  hence  is  loo  monotonous. 

Ja])an  is  another  country  that  ai)proaches  the  ideal  clbnate  1)0- 
oause  of  its  favorable  tem])eratur(\  many  storms,  and  fnuiueiit 
changes.  The  chief  diflicult>- in  the  southern  ])art  where  most  of  the 
peo])le  li\-e  is  I  liat  the  sunnners  are  too  warm  and  es])ecially  too  moist. 


CLIMATE   AND   HUMAN   ENERGY 


255 


In  the  southern  hemisphere,  New  Zealand  has  probably  the  best 
climate,  for  there  are  no  extremes  of  tenqierature  and  stomis  are 
fairly  abundant.  The  southeastern  corncn-  of  Australia  also  has  a 
fairly  stimulating  chmate,  as  have  ])arts  of  Argentina  and  Chile, 
but  in  these  three  re£,ions  cyclonic  storms  are  not  very  numerous  and 
hence  there  is  not  sufficient  variability. 

A  Map  cf  Climatio  Energy. — Fig.  85  shows  how  hmiian  energy 
would  be  disti'ibuted  li"  it  d('])('nded  wholly  on  climate.  Of  coui"se  it 
actually  depends  aL.o  on  many  other  conditions  such  as  inheritance, 
food,  shelter,  and  training,  but  for  the  present  purpose^  we  may  omit 
these.     The  heavily  shaded  parts  show  where  tlu;  climate  has  the 


Fig.  85. — Map  of  Climatic  I'^nergy. 


greatest  effect  in  giving  ])eo])]e  good  health  and  inaking  them  ener- 
getic. Notice  the  two  main  dark  areas,  on(^  in  the  United  States 
and  the  other  in  western  Europe.  The  area  in  the  United  States  is 
interrupted  somewhat  in  the  desert  parts  of  the  country  because  of  the 
long  summer  heat  and  drought.  The  European  area  projects  east- 
ward into  Russia  on  the  borders  of  Siberia,  but  graduall}'  disa]')pears, 
for  many  of  the  cyclonic  storms  die  out,  while  extremes  of  tinnpera- 
ture  and  of  dryness  prevail  in  the  center  of  the  continent.  Only  on 
the  far  eastern  side  of  Asia  in  Japan  does  another  area  of  high  energy 
api^ear.  South  of  the  three  good  areas  in  the  United  States,  I'Au-ope, 
and  .Japan,  the  conditions  of  health  and  energy  steatlily  decline,  and 
reach  their  woi'st  near  the  equator.  Then  they  hn]irove,  but  nowlu^-e 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  do  they  rise  as  high  as  in  the  north.     Thus 


2o0 


MAX'S    HKLAllo.N    TO   CLIMATE 


throo  main  facts  appear:  (1)  the  north  tonippratc  zone  of  cyclonic 
storms  is  much  the  Ix'st  part  of  the  world;  (2)  the  interiore  of  conti- 
nents in  the  zone  of  cyclonic  storms  are  usually  not  so  good  as  the 
coastal  regions;  and  (3)  the  southern  hemisphere  has  good  areas 
corresi^onding  t(^  those  of  the  nortiu>rn,  but  not  eciual  to  them. 

How  Climate  Influences  Character. — Energy  has  an  important 
relation  to  chai-actcr.  Where  tiie  clijnate  is  stimulating  it  is  eas}-  for 
people  to  l>c  industrious.  When  they  get  up  in  the  morning  they 
often  f(M>l  so  nnicli  like  work  lluit  they  are  eager  to  begin  before  the 
legular  time.  Such  people  are  likely  to  be  inventive  or  to  make  im- 
pro\'ements  and  carry  out  reforms.  They  do  not  necessarily  have 
nioi'e  ideas  tlian  otliers,  but  their  en(M-gy  makes  it  possible  to  ])ut  the 


Fig.  8G. — Map  of  Civilization. 

ideas  into  practice.  In  an  invigoi'ating  climate  it  is  also  easier  to  be 
honest  and  sober  and  self-controlled  than  in  a  more  enervating  one. 
It  is  much  easier  to  speak  tin-  ti-ulli  or  to  conli'ol  one's  teni])er  when 
one  feels  strong  than  when  on(>  feels  weak. 

People  who  live  in  good  climates  are  a]il  to  lool^:  down  u])on  lliose 
who  live  in  ])oorer  climates.  That  is  a  gi'eat  mistake.  The  elTect  of 
climate  is  like  that  of  food.  WC  do  not  look  down  u])on  ])eo])le  who 
are  weak  because  they  hav(>  been  unable  to  get  gofxl  food.  Peo])lc 
sui-h  as  missionaries  and  wise,  colonial  adniiiiist  I'atoi's  who  haxc  li\'ed 
long  in  tro])ical  counti'ies  have  learne(l  that  while  religion,  (nlucation, 
and  good  government  greatly  benefit,  th(>  natives,  nothing  can  over- 
come the  effect  of  the  climate.  Will  power,  industry,  and  sell'-i-eliance 
like  that  of  people  in  more  bracing  climates  can  be  gained  only  by  a 
process  so  slow  that  it  will  take  centuries. 


CLIMATE  AND   HUMAN   ENERGY  257 

Because  a  person  happens  to  be  born  in  an  unfavorable  climate 
he  is  not  necessarily  incapable  or  less  high  minded  than  those  born 
where  the  cUmate  is  more  stimulating.  In  fact  when  a  man  who 
lives  in  an  unfavorable  climate  such  as  that  of  Venezuela  distinguishes 
himself  he  deserv^es  greater  credit  than  does  an  equally  distin- 
guished man  from  a  more  favored  region  such  as  Louisiana,  and  nmch 
more  than  one  who  lives  in  a  highly  stimulating  region  like  Ohio. 
The  "N'enezuelan  has  to  draw  upon  his  own  will  power  for  much  of  his 
energy,  while  the  man  from  Ohio  receives  his  from  a  stimulating  cli- 
mate. Thus  our  Southern  States  deserve  more  credit  for  their 
achievements  than  do  the  Nortliern  States. 

How  Climate  Explains  the  Distribution  of  Civilization. — Climatic 
energy  has  much  to  do  with  the  advance  of  civilization.  Fig.  86 
shows  the  distribution  of  civilization  according  to  the  opinion  of 
about  fifty  eminent  men  from  different  countries  in  North  America, 
Europe,  and  Asia.  The  heavily  shaded  regions  contain  people  who 
stand  especially  high  in  the  scale  of  civiHzation.  Compare  this  map 
with  Fig.  85,  which  shows  climatic  energy.  On  both  maps  the 
black  areas  together  with  the  heavilj'  shaded  areas  which  smTound 
them  cover  approximately  the  same  regions.  Thej^  embrace  most  of 
the  United  States  and  southern  Canada,  most  of  Europe,  Jajian, 
southeastern  Australia,  and  a  portion  of  South  America.  The  agree- 
ment between  regions  of  stimulating  climate  and  high  civilization 
means  that  the  health  and  energy  imparted  by  such  a  climate  are 
among  the  conditions  necessary  for  progress.  Other  conditions  such 
as  the  influence  of  men  of  genius,  good  government,  an  ennobling 
religion,  and  strong  institutions  are  also  necessary  just  as  good  water, 
good  food,  and  proper  shelter  as  well  as  gootl  air  arc  necessary  to 
health. 

A  Climatic  Comparison:  The  Bahamas  and  Canada. — To  imder- 
stand  the  relation  of  climate  and  civilization  let  us  compare  the  pro- 
\'ince  of  Ontario,  where  the  climate  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world,  and 
the  Bahama  Islands,  which  have  a  warm,  monotonous,  tropical  cli- 
mate. The  original  white  settlers  in  both  places  were  of  the  same 
stock.  They  were  English  colonists,  man}'-  of  whom  left  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  because  of  their  loyalty  to  Eng- 
land. To-day  the  descendants  of  the  Loyalists  in  Canada  are  one 
of  the  strongest  elements  in  causing  that  country  to  be  conspicuously 
,well  governed  and  progressive.  In  the  Bahamas  the  descendants  of 
similar  Loyalists  prolmbly  show  a  larger  proportion  of  inefficient, 
incompetent  individuals  than  can  be  found  in  almost  any  other 
Anglo-Saxon  conmiunity.  Ajnong  the  Canadians  practicalh'  ever>'- 
one  has  a  fairly  good  education.  Among  the  Bahamans  a  large 
number  have  never  been  to  school,  and  many  who  learned  to  read  and 


258  MAN'S   RELATION    TO   CLIMATE 

wr'iio  in  tlioir  cliildluiod  li:ivo  forgotten  thosp  arts  because  tlioy  do  not 
pnictice  them. 

The  nuiin  cause  of  these  (hfferences  is  tlie  climate,  althoujih  other 
factore  siicli  as  the  ])resence  of  negi'oc^s  in  the  Bahamas  ])lay  an  impor- 
tant part.  As  tlie  Bahanians  themselves  say,  "Tliis  climate  is  veiy 
healthful  and  pleasant  as  everyone  knows.  That  is  why  people  come 
from  the  North  to  s])end  ]mrt  of  the  winter  at  beautiful  Nassau.  The 
only  trouble  is  that  it  doesn't  make  one  feel  like  work.  In  winter 
it's  all  right,  although  cwn  then  we  can't  fly  around  the  way  you 
Americans  do.  In  summer  we  go  to  bed  tired  and  we  get  up  more 
tired,  anil  our  summer  lasts  from  April  to  October.  It's  all  very  well 
for  you  Americans  to  think  we're  lazy,  but  try  living  here  a  year  or 
two  youi'selves,  and  you'll  be  as  lazy  as  we  arc."  A  Hahaman  girl 
who  returned  to  the  Islands  for  a  visit  after  stu(l>  ing  nursing  in  New 
York  was  asked  whether  she  enjoyed  life  more  in  the  United  States 
or  at  home.  "How  can  one  help  enjoAnng  it  more  there?"  she  an- 
swered. "There  one  feci s  like  doing  things.  Here  one  never /cf/.s  like 
doing  anything."  The  whole  matter  is  well  summed  up  by  a  local 
proverb  which  says  that  3'ou  cannot  tell  whether  a  Bahanian  woman 
is  pretty  until  slie  goes  away  and  has  a  chance  to  grow  plump  and  get 
some  color  in  her  cheeks.  Some  of  the  more  thoughtful  Bahaman 
parents  send  their  children  to  the  United  States  or  I'Jigland,  not  only 
for  education,  but  to  live  permanently.  They  feel  that  the  Bahamas 
are  not  a  white  man's  countiy. 

The  chief  trouble  in  the  Bahamas  seems  to  be  the  monotony  of  the 
jlimate.  There  is  almost  no  malaria  or  hookworm  disease,  two  of 
the  chief  scourges  of  more  tropical  countri(^s.  The  temperature^  is 
not  excessive  and  the  hottest  days  are  by  no  means  so  warm  as  in 
Kansas  City,  for  example.  Tlun-e  are  few  cyclonic  storms,  however, 
and  therefore  few  changes,  and  nothing  to  stimulate  activity.  Hence 
although  people  may  have  good  ideas  and  may  int(Mid  to  carry  them 
out,  it  is  very  hard  to  make  an  effort.  Wlu>n  the  Bahaman  gets  up 
in  the  morning  he  feels  a  sort  of  dulhicss.  Th(>  regular  i-ou(iiic  of 
daily  life  can  l)e  carried  on  without  much  difliculty,  but  when  a  new 
kind  of  work  is  to  be  done,  he  saj's,  "\\  ait  till  to-morrow."  Hence 
civilization  will  continue  to  make  little  progi'ess  utitil  the  Bahamans 
are  taught  how  to  overcome  their  climatic  handi<a]). 

The  Canadian  cousins  of  t.hc  Haliamans,  on  tlic  contrary', 
make  gi'eat  progress  in  ci\ilizalion.  Tiiey  are  full  of  that  super- 
alnmdant  energy  wlii<'h  makes  ])('o])l(>  want  to  g(>t  out  and  do 
something.  We  all  know  the  feeling.  It  somc^times  l(\-ids  us  to  do 
foolish  and  even  harmful  things,  but  on  the  whole  it  kee]is  us  profit- 
ably active  and  alert.  This  activit.y  and  alert tiess  are  one  chief  reason 
why  Canada  is  an  important  member  of  the   Family  of   Nations. 


CLIMATE   AND   HUMAX   EXERGY 


259 


The  Bahainan  should  not  be  blamed  for  his  laziness  or  tho  Ontarian 
praised  for  his  achievements.  It  is  the  climate  that  deserves  blame 
in  one  case  and  praise  in  the  other. 

Climate  only  One  Factor  in  Causing  Civilization. — It  nmst  not  Ijc 
for<;otten  that  a  sthniilatiiij;-  climate  is  only  one  of  the  conditions  which 
promote  a  country's  civilization.  The  world  may  be  likened  to  a 
canvas  upon  which  several  artists  are  painting  a  picture  of  civiliza- 
tion. One  artist,  called  «>iimatc,  paints  a  set  of  colors  which  may  be 
harmonious  in  one  place  and  unpleasantly  lurid  or  faded  in  othei-s. 
Race  adds  other  tints,  sometimes  good  and  sometimes  bad.  Religion 
paints  still  other  colors,  while  institutions,  government,  and  education 
each  add  their  tints.  If  all  the  colore  are  good  in  any  part  of  the 
world,  that  region  will  have  a  high  civiUzation.  The  United  States 
and  western  Europe  are  particularly  fortunate  in  being  the  two  areas 
where  the  colore  form  favoraljle  combinations  on  the  largest  scale. 


QUESTIOXS,  EXERCISES,  AXD  PRCJBLEMS 
1.  A.  Keep  an  outdoor  weather  record  and  an  indoor  record  for  a  period  of 
two  or  three  months  during  the  winter  (and,  if  joossiblc,  again  in 
summer).  For  the  outdoor  record  use  three  thermometers:  (1) 
maximum;  (2)  minimum;  (3)  wet  bulb.  The  maxinuun  thermometer 
may  also  be  used  as  (4)  a  dry  bulb.  For  the  indoor  rccoril  use  a  wet 
and  a  dry  bulb  thermometer.  Be  sure  to  fan  the  wet  bulb  a  minute 
before  taking  a  reading,  especially  indoors,  where  the  air  is  still. 
The  indoor  thermometer  should  be  hung  in  some  room  where  people 
are  in  the  habit  of  sitting.  The  indoor  record  should  show  the  usual 
conditions  and  not  those  when  the  room  is  being  aired. 
Once  a  day  at  a  regular  hour  make  a  record  of  the  following  four  tem- 
peratures outdoors:  (1)  maximum;  (2)  minimum;  (3)  wet  bulb;  (4) 
dry  bulb.  Note  the  direction  and  force  of  the  winds  according  to 
the  following  scale: 


Scale  Numbers. 

Corresponding  Wind. 

Limits  of  Uourly  Velocity 
Miles  per  Hour. 

0 

1 

2 
3 

4 
5 

6 

Calm 

Light  breeze 

Moderate  wind 

Strong  wind 

Gale 

Storm 

Hurricane 

Und<n-          2 

2-12 
13-23 
24-37 
38-55 
56-75 

Above        75 

At  the  same  time  make  a  record  of  the  wet  and  dry  bvilbs  indoors.  .Mso 
record  the  days  when  you  feel  particularly  energetic  or  particularly 
well  able  to  study,  and  the  days  when  you  do  not  feel  energetic  and 
when  work  drags.  Omit,  however,  the  days  when  you  know  that  your 
condition  is  due  to  some  special  circumstance,  as  good  news,  a  late 
party,  or  too  much  or  too  little  exercise. 
B.  After  your  record  is  well  started  plot  on  a  single  sheet  the  following 
conditions:     (1)  outside  temperature;   (2)   change  in  outside  tern- 


260 


MAN'S   RELATION    TO   CLIMATE 


poratiiro  in  24  hours;  (3)  insido  tomi)Pratiiro;  (4)  avprago  tompomture 
of  niaxiiimni  and  iiiiiiiinum  which  is  practically  the  mean  for  the  day; 
(5)  relative  humidity  of  the  outside  air;  ((>)  relative  humidity  of  the 
inside  air;  (7)  strenj^th  of  the  wind. 
C.  Pick  out  from  the  record  the  days  which  seem  to  you  particularly  ^ood 
on  the  liasis  of  (1)  temjierature,  paying  attention  to  l>oth  indoor 
and  lutiloor  ctinditions;  i2i  relative  humidity  indoors  and  out;  (3) 
ohanfie  of  temi)erature;  (4)  movement  of  the  air.  Explain  whatever 
relation  you  see  between  your  physical  and  mental  conditions  and  the 
weather. 

RELATIVE  HUMIDITY  TABLE 

To  determine  the  relative  humidity  find  the  reading  of  the  dry  hull)  ther- 
mometer on  the  left  (jf  the  table  and  in  the  line  thus  indicated  find  the  proper 
number  in  the  column  having  at  its  head  the  dilferenee  between  the  dry  and  wet 
bulbs.  For  example;  Dry  bulb  68°,  wet  bulb  61°,  difference  7°.  In  the  column 
headed  7  and  opposite  a  temperature  of  68°  we  finrl  67,  whicli  means  that  the  air 
has  the  e.xcellent  relative  humidity  of  67  per  cent. 


Difference 

IN  Degrees  Between  Wet  and  Dry  Bulb  Thermometers 

of  Dry  Bulb 
Theniiom- 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

ctcr, 
Fahrenheit 

32 

90 

79 

69 

60 

50 

41 

31 

22 

13 

4 

33 

90 

80 

71 

61 

52 

42 

33 

24 

16 

7 

34 

90 

81 

72 

62 

53 

44 

35 

27 

18 

9 

1 

35 

91 

82 

73 

64 

55 

46 

37 

29 

20 

12 

4 

36 

91 

82 

73 

65 

56 

48 

39 

31 

23 

14 

6 

37 

91 

83 

74 

66 

58 

49 

41 

33 

25 

17 

9 

1 

38 

91 

S3 

75 

67 

59 

51 

43 

35 

27 

19 

12 

4 

39 

92 

84 

76 

6S 

60 

52 

44 

37 

29 

21 

14 

7 

40 

92 

84 

76 

68 

61 

53 

46 

38 

31 

23 

16 

9 

2 

41 

92 

84 

77 

69 

62 

54 

47 

40 

33 

26 

18 

11 

5 

42 

92 

85 

77 

70 

62 

55 

48 

41 

34 

28 

21 

14 

7 

43 

92 

85 

78 

70 

63 

56 

49 

43 

36 

29 

23 

16 

9 

3 

44 

93 

85 

78 

71 

64 

57 

51 

44 

37 

31 

24 

18 

12 

5 

45 

93 

86 

79 

71 

65 

58 

52 

45 

39 

33 

26 

20  14 

8 

2 

46 

93 

SC) 

79 

72 

65 

59 

53 

46 

40 

34 

28  22  16 

10 

4 

47 

93 

.sc, 

7!) 

73 

()6 

60 

54 

47 

41 

35 

29  23  17 

12 

6 

1 

48 

93 

87 

SO 

73 

67 

60 

54 

48 

42 

36 

3l|25  19 

14 

8 

3 

49 

93 

87 

80 

74 

67 

61 

55 

49 

43 

37 

32  26  21 

15 

10 

5 

60 

93 

87 

81 

74 

68 

62 

56 

50 

44 

39 

33  28  22 

17 

12 

7  2 

61 

94 

87 

81 

75 

69 

63 

57 

51 

45 

40 

35  29  24  19'l4 

9  4 

62 

94 

88 

81 

75 

69 

63 

58 

52 

46 

41 

3()3()25  20  15  10  6 

1 

63 

94 

88 

82 

75 

70 

64 

58 

53 

47 

42 

37.32  27  22  17  12  7 

3   1 

54 

94 

88 

82 

76 

70 

65 

59 

54 

48 

43 

3S 

33 

2S 

23 

18 

141 

9 

5 

1 

CLIMATE  AND  HUMAN  ENERGY 
RELATIVE  HUMIDITY  TABLE— Cotitinued. 


261 


Reading 
of  Dry  Bulb 
Thermom- 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

G 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

eter. 
Fahrenheit 

55 

94 

88 

82 

76 

71 

65 

60 

55 

49 

44 

39 

34 

29 

25 

20 

15 

11 

6 

1 

56 

94 

88 

82 

77 

71 

or. 

61 

55 

50 

45 

40  3.">;;i  -'O-M  17 12  s  3 

57 

94 

88 

S3 

77 

"■■) 

1  it ') 

61 

56 

51 

46 

413O0J  J7  23  Is  11  10    5 

58 

94 

89 

s:j 

~"" 

7) 

07 

62 

57 

52 

4 

42  38  33  28|24!20 

15ll2 

7 

2 

59 

94 

89 

83 

78 

73 

6s 

63 

58 

53 

48 

43  39  34  30 

25  21 

17  13 

9 

4 

60 

94 

SO 

si 

7  s 

7.", 

(Is 

Cio 

.")S 

53 

40 

44  40  35  31 

27 

2218  14  10 

6 

61 

94 

S'.  I 

St 

7'.) 

71 

(Is 

Cil 

.")'.) 

.".1 

.")() 

45  40  36  32  28  24  20  15  12    7 

62 

94 

89 

SI 

7'.  1 

71 

(i:  1 

c.  1 

0(1 

:..") 

."lO 

46  41  37  33  20  25  21  16  14    9 

63 

95 

90 

Si 

7>.) 

71 

7( 

(i.") 

(lO 

oti 

7)1 

47  42:38,34  30  26,22  17,15,11 

64 

95 

90 

85 

79 

75 

70 

66 

61 

56 

52 

48 

43 

39  35  31  27  23  18 

1612 

65 

95 

90 

So 

SI) 

7") 

70 

66 

62 

57 

53 

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44 

40  36  32  28  25  20 

17 

13 

66 

95 

on 

S.') 

SI) 

77) 

71 

66 

62 

58 

53 

49  45 

41  37  33  29  26  21 

18 

14 

67 

95 

0(1 

sTi 

so 

711 

71 

67 

62 

58 

54 

50  46 

42  38  34  30  27  22 

19 

15 

68 

95 

90 

85 

81 

76 

72 

67 

63 

59 

55 

5147 

43  39  35  31  28  23  20 

16 

69 

95 

90 

86 

81 

77 

72 

68 

64 

59 

55 

5147 

44 

40  36  32  29  24  21 

18 

70 

95 

90 

86 

81 

77 

72 

68 

64 

60 

56 

52  48 

44 

40  37  33  30  26  23 

19 

71 

95 

90 

S(i 

s2 

— 

73 

69 

64 

60 

56 

53  49  45 

4138  34  3137  24  20 

72 

95 

91 

Sil 

s_' 

7s 

73 

69 

65 

61 

57 

53  49  46 

42  39  35  32  28  25  21 

73 

95 

91 

Stl 

S'J 

7s 

73 

69 

65 

61 

58 

54  50  46'43  40  36  33  29  26!22 

74 

95 

91 

86 

S2 

78 

74 

70 

66 

62 

59 

54 

5147'44i40  37i34  30 

III 

26  23 

75 

96 

91 

87 

82 

78 

71 

7(1 

liO 

i>:i 

," ',  1 

M     1     1     1     1 
.".:.  7.1   is  44  41  38  34  31 

27  24 

76 

96 

91 

87 

83 

78 

74 

7(1 

ti7 

li.; 

."1 '.  1 

7..-,  :,_■  is  4542  38  35  32'28  25 

77 

96 

01 

s7 

s3 

79 

75 

71 

67 

63 

60 

56  52  49|46  42  39  36  33  29  26 

78 

96 

01 

s7 

s3 

79 

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71 

67 

64 

()0 

57'53  50'46  43,40  37  34,30  27 

79 

96 

91 

S7 

s;j 

70 

75 

71 

6S 

01 

00 

57  '.  1  :)( )  47 

44 

41 

37  34  31  28 

80 

96 

91 

87 

83 

79 

76 

72 

68 

64 

61 

57  54  51  47 

44 

41 

38  35  32  29 

82 

96 

92 

8S 

SI 

so 

76 

72 

69 

65 

62 

58  55  52  49 

46 

43  40 36.33130 

84 

96 

92 

Sn 

si 

SI) 

77 

73 

70 

66 

63 

59  56  53  50 

47  44  4137  3431 

86 

96 

92 

88 

85 

81 

77 

74 

70 

67 

63 

60  57  54  51  48 45 42  38 3632 

88 

96 

92 

88 

85 

81 

78 

74 

71 

67 

64 

61  58  55  52 

49  46  43  40  37  34 

1     1     1     1 

90 

'.Hi 

'.  •_' 

S9 

85 

81 

78 

/  •) 

71 

(is 

t'.7) 

62  59  56 

53 

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41  39  36 

92 

96 

92 

89 

85 

82 

78 

75 

72 

69 

65 

62:59  57 

54 

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42  40  37 

94 

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86 

82 

79 

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72 

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66 

63,60  57 

54 

52  49 

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4138 

96 

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82 

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76 

73 

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64  61  58  55 

53  50  47 

44 

4239 

98 

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64  6159  56 

53  51  48 

46 

43140 

100 

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93 

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86 

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80 

77 

74 

71 

68 

65  62!59  57 

1     1 

54  52  49 

47 

44  42 

262  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   CLIMATE 

2.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  indirato  by  dots  the  desert  and  semi-arid 
regions  having  a  rainfall  of  less  than  20  inches  i)er  j'ear.  Trace  on  this  maj)  the 
isotherms  for  70°  in  July  (Fig.  72)  and  30°  in  January  (Fig.  71)  and  shade  the 
undotted  lands  between  these  two  Unes.  What  does  this  map  indicate  as  to  the 
extent  and  location  of  regions  where  the  climate  is  highly  stimulating  both  men- 
tally and  physically?  It  must  be  remembered,  of  course,  that  considerable  areas 
on  each  side  of  the  shaded  areas  also  i)ossess  excellent  conditions. 

3.  In  Bartholomew's  Meteorological  Atlas,  Huntington's  Civilization  and  Cli- 
mate, or  some  other  book  find  a  map  of  the  distribution  of  storms.  Compare  this 
with  Fig.  SG  showing  the  distribution  of  civilization  and  record  your  conclusions. 

4.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  indicate  by  a  solid  line  the  70°  i.sotherm 
for  summer  and  by  a  dotted  line  the  70°  isotherm  for  winter.  Shade  the  lands 
between  these  two  lines.  How  do  the  size  and  location  of  the  shaded  areas  com- 
pare in  the  two  hemispheres?  What  does  this  indicate  as  to  the  variability  of 
climate  north  and  south  of  the  Equator?  Which  has  the  advantage?  Why? 
Compare  your  map  with  the  map  of  civilization.  Fig.  8G,  and  draw  conclusions. 

5.  Look  up  the  following  aboriginal  people:  (a)  Kaffirs;  (b)  Bantus;  (c) 
Maoris;  (d)  Australian  Aborigines.  Indicate  on  a  map  of  the  world  the  i)laces 
where  each  of  them  was  originallj'  most  numerous.  What  specific  (climatic  influ- 
ences help  to  account  for  the  diverse  abilities  of  the  four  races? 

6.  Look  up  the  statistics  for  immigration  into  the  United  States  for  five 
years,  using  the  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Immigration  or  the  World 
Almanac.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  draw  a  line  in  each  chief  country  pro- 
portional to  the  number  of  immigrants  sent  by  it  to  the  United  States.  Comjjare 
j-our  map  with  Figs.  85  and  8G.  ^^'hat  do  you  conclude  as  to  the  civilization 
of  our  immigrants  and  the  climate  of  the  countries  from  which  they  come? 


PART  VII 
MAN'S   RELATION    TO    VEGETATION    AND    ANIMALS 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  EARTH'S  GARMENT  OF  VEGETATION 

The  Importance  of  Plants  and  Animals. — Thus  far  wo  have  do- 
voted  our  attention  chiefly  to  the  direct  responses  of  man  to  the  five 
great  elements  of  physical  environment.  We  have  passed  from  lo- 
cation, land  forms,  water  bodies,  soil  and  minerals,  and  climate 
directl}^  to  man's  activities.  Only  here  and  there  have  we  touched 
on  the  plants  and  animals  which  form  the  second  column  in  the  geo- 
graphic diagi'am  of  Fig.  1.  Now  that  we  have  studied  climate, 
however,  we  are  ready  to  consider  how  plants  and  animals  influence 
man's  activities.  They  exert  their  influence  chiefly  through  agricul- 
ture, the  gi-eat  industiy  which  furnishes  most  of  our  food  and  raw 
materials. 

How  important  plants  and  animals  are  may  l)o  judged  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  United  States  about  40  per  cent  of  the  population 
depend  directly  upon  agricultm-o.  Sonu^ono  has  well  said  that 
previous  to  1900  the  chief  manufactiu'od  product  of  the  United 
States  was  5,740,000  farms  with  an  area  of  840,000,000  acres.  The 
number  of  farms  is  still  incnnising,  although  not  so  rapidly  as  formcM'ly, 
because  the  greater  part  of  the  good  land  has  already  been  occupied. 
In  1920  the  farms  of  the  l^nitcnl  States,  including  buildings,  equip- 
ment, and  animals,  as  well  as  the  soil  wlun'o  th(^  cro])S  are  grown, 
were  worth  a])out  one  himdred  billion  dollars.  Tliis  is  more  than 
twice  as  much  as  the  ca})ital  invested  in  all  kinds  of  manufacturing 
enterprises  in  this  country.  The  mnnlx^r  of  i)e()])l(>  who  Uve  on  the 
farms  is  also  twice  as  large  as  the  mnnber  who  depend  on  manu- 
facturing. 

Even  in  a  country  like  England,  where  manufacturing  is  jiredomi- 
nant  and  home  i)roduction  of  food  does  not  begin  to  sui)i)ly  the  tle- 
mand,  agriculture  employs  more  people  than  all  the  railroads,  steam- 
shi])s,  and  other  means  of  conuinuiicatioii.  and  inovc  than  the  metal 

2G3 


204      MANS  i;i:i.\ri().\  to  vegetation  and  animals 

indiistrios  which  have  inado  British  cutlery  and  other  hardware 
famous  all  o\i'r  the  world.  Elsewhere  agrieuUure  is  still  more  im- 
portant. In  Russia  three-fourths  of  the  pco])le  arc  peasants,  while  in 
India  and  China  the  proportion  is  even  larger.  Thus  plants  and 
anijnals  determine  the  mode  of  life  and  the  prosperity  of  far  more  than 
hiilf  the  world's  inhabitants. 

How  the  Nature  of  the  Vegetation  Determines  the  Character  of 
Agriculture. — Although  the  fanner  uses  both  jjlants  antl  animals, 
j)l;ui1s  are  much  the  more  unportant  because  annuals  as  well  as  men 
de])en(l  n])(iii  them.  The  full  importance  of  plants,  however,  does 
not  a])i)ear  until  we  also  realize  that  the  differences  in  agi'iculturc  from 
region  to  region  d(>pend  largely  on  the  different  kinds  of  plants  which 
the  climate  and  soil  permit.  The  man  who  cleai-s  the  tropical  jungle 
cannot  possiljly  raise  the  same  crops  as  the  one  Avho  lives  in  the  far 
north  where  a  gi'owing  season  of  only  three  months  permits  Httle  saAe 
barley  to  be  raised.  Nor  can  he  plant  and  reap  his  crops  in  the  same 
way,  or  use  the  same  variety  of  animals.  So,  too,  the  man  who  lives 
in  the  fertile  gi'asslands  of  the  prairie  raises  corn,  wheat,  horees,  and 
cows,  while  the  one  who  inhaljits  a  hot  desert  oasis  raises  millet,  dates, 
camels,  and  goats.  AMiat  the  chestnut  and  olive  are  to  the  Spanish 
peasant,  the  bread-fruit  tree  is  to  the  scantilj^  clad  inhabitant  of  the 
tropical  Marquesas  Islands  in  tlie  South  Pacific.  Even  in  the  same 
latitude  the  parts  of  Yucatan  that  favor  the  growth  of  sisal  give  rise 
to  a  kind  of  farming  different  from  that  which  prevails  in  the  wetter 
regions  where  rubber  trees  and  cacao  thrive.  The  La]:)p  who  raises 
reindeer  does  so  because  the  vegetation  that  will  grow  in  his  cold 
northern  region  will  support  no  other  kind  of  animal,  and  will  not 
fin-nish  crops  that  man  can  eat.  In  all  these  cases  vegetation  is  the 
chief  factor  in  determining  how  the  pc'ople  get  a  li^^ng. 

The  Three  Great  Types  of  Vegetation. — Since  plants  are  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  Uvcs  of  such  a  vast  number  of  people,  we  must 
luiderstand  the  variations  of  natural  vegetation  and  the  causes  of  their 
(listril)uli()n.  The  ordinary  ])lants  thai  I'oiiu  the  caith's  gaiiuciil  (if 
vegetation  may  be  divided  inio  ihice  great  groups:  (1)  trees;  (2) 
bushes,  scrub,  and  woody  perennials:  and  (8)  grasses  and  other  liei'- 
baceous  l'()iiii>.  Without  this  \aiie(l  tianiieiit  of  vegetation  tiie  lands 
of  t  he  eait  h  would  be  as  barren  as  1  he  moon  with  its  w  asles  of  desola- 
lion.  \\  liile  soil  and  relief  ha\'e  much  to  do  with  the  local  distribu- 
tion of  t  hese  three  groups,  t  heir  geneial  (li>t  ri  but  ion  o\'er  t  lie  world  as 
a  whole  depends  chiefly  upon  two  climatic  lactoi's:  (a)  the  length 
of  the  season  warm  enough  foi-  growth;  and  [h)  the  ])i-opoit  ion  of 
that  season  during  which  there  is  moistui'e  enough  to  pi-omote 
growth. 

Treca. — Although  trees  ai-e  the  highest   foi'in  of  ^■egelable  life,  lliey 


THE   EARTH'S   GARMENT  OF  VEGETATION  265 

are  in  many  ways  more  sensitive  than  bushy  or  gi*assy  vegetation. 
They  are  sensitive  to  drought,  especially  when  yoiuig.  Everyone 
who  has  traveled  from  a  well-watered  region  to  one  that  is  dry  knows 
how  the  trees  diminish  in  size  and  become  scrubby,  or  else  become 
few  in  number  and  are  limited  to  places  with  more  than  the  usual 
amount  of  moisture.  Trees  also  need  a  fairly  long  gi'owing  season. 
That  is  why  the  tree-line  on  mountains  is  lower  than  the  upper  limit 
of  grasses.  On  the  higher  slopes  of  the  mountains,  although  there 
is  plenty  of  moisture  the  v/arm  period  when  growth  is  possible  is  not 
long  enough  to  enable  trees  to  make  their  growth  and  ripen  their 
seeds,  although  grasses  succeed  without  cUfficulty.  Accoixlingly 
trees  attain  a  fine  gi'owth  and  form  gTeat  forests  in  regions  which 
have  a  moderately  long  warm  season  during  which  there  is  abundant 
moisture.  Such  regions  may  be  as  varied  as  the  Belgian  Congo,  Si- 
beria, the  eastern  United  States,  and  the  Andes  of  southern  Chili. 

Bushes  and  Scrub. — The  plants  classified  under  this  head  range  all 
the  way  from  scrubby  trees  to  perennials  with  more  or  less  woody 
stems  which  die  back  in  part  after  each  growing  season.  Such  plants 
are  mixed  with  the  trees  in  most  forested  regions.  Where  the  condi- 
tions of  climate  or  soil  become  unfavorable  to  trees,  however,  bushes 
crowd  them  out  and  become  the  chief  growth.  This  can  be  seen  near 
the  tree  line  on  the  sides  of  mountains  where  low  temperature  pre- 
vents the  gi'owth  of  trees  sooner  than  of  bushes.  It  is  also  seen  on  the 
edges  of  swanaps  where  too  much  moisture  in  the  soil  prevents  many 
kinds  of  trees  from  growing,  but  does  not  drive  out  the  bushes.  Again 
where  the  soil  becomes  thin  and  hence  dry,  the  trees  give  place  to 
bushes.  The  most  noteworthy  of  all  regions  for  bushes,  however,  are 
subtropical  and  desert  regions  or  the  parts  of  the  torrid  zone  where 
the  drj'  season  is  particularly  long.  The  mountains  of  Sicily  with 
their  scrubby  "dry  forests,"  the  sage  brush  d(^s(n't  of  Utah,  the  bushy 
desert  of  Arizona,  and  the  areas  of  tropical  scrul)  in  (he  dr}'  parts 
of  Colombia  are  all  examples  of  this  type. 

The  bushy  growths  of  dry  regions  differ  from  Irin^s  in  Ixnng  able 
to  maintain  Ihcinselves  through  protracted  droughts  provided  they 
have  water  at  occasional  intervals.  ]\Iany  of  tlieni  have  drought- 
resistant  leaves.  In  some,  like  the  laurel  and  li\i'  oak,  the  leaves 
arc  hard  and  shiny;  in  others  such  as  the  sage,  they  are  soft  and  fiu'ry. 
Both  types  have  coverings  that  hinder  evaporation  and  thus  protect 
th(^  plants  during  the  long  dry  season.  Many  such  plants  also  bear 
l)ri(kly  leaves  or  si)ines.  These  incidentally  protect  the  plants  against 
the  ravages  of  animals,  but  in  most  cases  they  originate  tln-ough  a  pvo- 
gressive  reduction  in  I  he  plant 's  evaporating  surface.  'I'he  jilants  in 
which  (•\a])ora(  ion  is  rest  I'ictctl  h;l^■(•  the  Ix-st  chance  of  sur\i\:il  in 
the  (Icsci-t. 


26G        MAX  S    UliLATlOX    TO    VECKTATION    AND   ANIMALS 


l«Gk^it  r 


THE  EARTH'S   GARiMEXT  OF  VEGETATION 


267 


£  ^ 


— .  ._  jj 


2G8        MANS   KELATIUX    TO    \KC;1:TAT1()X    AND   A.M.MALS 

CrafifiCft. — Tno  modest  p-assos  p:i-ow  iindor  a  p^'oaror  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances than  do  eitlier  trees  or  bushes.  ]\Iany  gi'asscs  can  com- 
plete their  gi'owth  and  mature  their  seeds  in  a  few  weeks  so  that  a 
siiifjle  sliowc^r  in  the  desert  may  be  enoup;h  for  them.  The}''  often 
grow  so  rajiidly  that  they  can  thrive  on  high  moimtains  where  the 
wann  season  is  too  short  for  trees  or  bushes.  Hence  above  the  tree 
Hne  there  are  lofty  gr(>en  pastures  or  "alps"  that  furnish  food  for 
sheej)  and  cattle  in  Switzerland,  Norway,  and  elsewhere.  Grasses 
can  endiu-e  not  only  aritlit}^,  low  temperature,  and  short  seasons  of 
growth,  but  also  excessiA-e  moistm-e  which  would  be  fatal  to  trees  and 
bushes.  Hence  the  dripping  hills  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales, 
and  the  soggy  mai"shes  of  Holland  are  clothed  with  soft-  lush  grass 
which  makes  (>\c(>llciit  ■i);istur('. 

A  Mountain  Showing  World-wide  Types  of  Vegetation. — A  most 
interesting  illustration  of  the  relation  of  climate  to  trees,  bushes,  and 
grasses  is  found  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  Cali- 
fornia. At  the  base  the  climate  is  so  dry  that  the  traveler  finds  the 
plain  and  the  lower  foothills  clothed  with  grass  which  is  green  only 
a  few  weeks.  A  little  higher  up,  as  the  rainfall  increases,  bushy 
vegetation  of  many  sorts  is  met,  including  the  wild  lilac,  the  joicca, 
and  the  manzanita,  with  its  smooth  hornlike  stems.  The  live-oak 
tre«,  with  its  hard,  prickly  leaves  appears,  and  before  one  has  climbed 
far  he  is  in  the  midst  of  a  dry  forest,  that  is,  one  composed  of  drought 
resistant  trees  many  of  wliich  are  scrubby.  At  higher  altitudes 
where  there  is  abundant  rain  the  dry  forest  is  replaced  by  a  wet 
forest  of  broad-lca\'cd  trees  like  the  oixlinary  oak  and  sj^amore. 
Then,  where  the  air  is  colder,  the  tjqoe  changes  to  coniferous  forests 
of  pines,  giant  sequoias,  spruces,  and  fii-s.  Next,  where  the  gi'owing 
season  becomes  too  short  for  trees,  one  struggles  through  a 
dense  thicket  of  bushes  bent  down  by  six  months  of  snow  each  year. 
Finally,  when  these  are  left  below,  the  open  grassy  slopes  of  the  "alps" 
are  reachcti,  for  here  wliere  the  t(Mnpei';i1ui'(^  is  loo  low  for  wood}' 
plants  the  grasses  thrive  fai"  bet  tef  1  liaii  tlicy  do  in  thcdi-y.  hoi  desert 
fur  below.  Thus  within  a  day's  climb  one  may  liiid  illu^i  I'al  ions  of 
most  of  the  woild's  main  types  of  vegetation. 

Distribution  of  Vegetation  on  a  Simplified  Globe. — The  distril)U- 
tioii  of  trees,  bushes,  and  grasses  over  the  earth's  sui'face  seems  at  first 
sight  to  l)e  most  complicated.  It  follows  definite  laws,  however, as  may 
be  seen  from  a  (•()mi)ai'ison  ol'thc  accompanyinii,-  lalilc  willi  l'"ig.  <S'.). 
Th(>  table  shows  how  veg(>tation  would  lie  distributiMl  on  a  simplified 
glol)e,  such  as  we  have  usimI  in  dis(aissing  climate.  The  map  shows, 
in  a  gcnei-al  way,  tlic  actual  dist  libut  ion.  \'>y  comparing  the  ma]) 
with  the  table  we  can  see  how  the  distribution  of  ])lants  is  alTected 


THE  EARTHS   GARMENT  OF   VEGETATION 


2G9 


270        MANS    l{i;i.A'lI()N     TO    MXlllTATloX    AM)   ANLMALS 


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THE  EARTH'S  GARMENT  OF  VEGETATION  271 

not  only  by  the  zonal  an:ui<>;ement  of  toni])oratvn'o  and  moisture'  on 
the  earth's  surface,  l)ut  by  the  relief  of  the  lands,  and  especially  by 
the  presence  of  moistin-(\  Far  larg;(n-  areas  bear  sparse  vegetation 
because  of  aridity  than  because  of  low  temperature, 

(1)  Equatorial  Rain  Forest. — Close  to  the  equator  a  simplified 
globe  would  be  sin-rounded  by  a  zone  of  the  densest  kind  of  equatorial 
rain  forest.  It  is  called  the  rain  forest  because  the  dry  seasons  are 
here  so  short  that  the  gi'oimd  never  becomes  parched,  and  most  of  the 
year  there  is  a  superalnmdance  of  moisture.  As  the  temperature  is 
always  high,  vegetation  can  gTow  rapidly  at  all  tunes.  The  trees 
rise  to  gi-eat  heights  and  form  a  soml)er  canopy  v/hicli  shuts  out  the 
sunlight.  The  forest  is  mostly  uninhabited,  ai:d  t!:e  few  people  who 
dwell  in  it  are  uncivilized  savages  like  those  of  the  Amazon  Basin. 
On  the  map  this  kind  of  forest  does  not  form  a  continuous  equatorial 
belt,  because  it  is  interrupted  not  only  by  the  oceans  but  l>y  moun- 
tains and  plateaus.  Nevertheless  it  covci-s  vast  areas  in  the  Amazon 
and  Congo  basins  and  in  the  East  Indies  and  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
Smaller  outlying  areas  of  similar  forest  arc  found  on  the  rainy  east 
coasts  of  Central  America  and  Brazil,  on  the  west  coast  of  India,  and 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  at  the  base  of  the  eastern  Himalayas. 

(2)  Tropical  Jungle.- — ^Poleward  of  the  tropical  regions,  ap]iroxi- 
mately  in  latitudes  7°  to  15°,  the  rainfall  on  a  simplif'cd  globe 
though  still  abundant,  would  diminish  and  the  dry  season  l>ecome 
longer  than  at  the  etiuator.  Herice  the  equatorial  rain  forest  ^\•()uld 
give  place  to  the  kind  of  forest  called  tropical  jungle.  ]\Iany  of  the 
trees  in  such  a  forest  are  of  large  size.  ]\Iore,  however,  are  moderate 
in  height  and  in  some  of  the  drier  parts  bushes  become  abundant. 
The  chief  characteristic  of  the  tj^jical  jungle  is  the  way  in  which 
vegetation  runs  riot.  The  plants  crowd  upon  one  another  so  closely 
that  a  pci-son  unskilled  in  the  lore  of  the  forest  may  lose  hunself  in 
five  minutes.  This  is  th(>  part  of  the  world  where  it  is  easiest  for 
man  to  get  a  living.  Hence?  in  the  cleared  portions,  the  population  is 
often  dense,  but  the  people  do  not  stand  high  in  civilization.  In 
America  the  jungle  regions  comprise  large  areas  in  Central  America 
and  the  northern  part  of  South  Aiuerica,  together  with  southeastern 
Brazil.  In  Africa  there  is  a  good  deal  of  jungle  on  the  bordeiv.  of  the 
equatorial  forest  and  also  in  Abyssinia,  Madagascar,  an<l  along  the 
eastern  coast,  but  owing  to  the  high  altitude  the  proportion  of  jungle 
is  less  than  in  other  tro]iical  regions.  In  Asia,  the  best  exain]il(>s  of 
jungle  arc  in  soutiici-ii  India.  lii(lo-( 'liiiia,  and  llie  drier  i^arts  of  the 
Kast  Indies,  wliile  iioitiierii  Aust ralia  also  has  a  (•onsideral)le  area. 

(3)  Triipicitl  Scnih.  Although  equatorial  rain  forests  and  tro]iical 
jungle  ;ti-c  the  two  most  tyi)ical  kinds  of  vegetation  in  the  warmest 


272        MANS    KllL.VnoN    TO    \  KGK  TATK  )X    AND   ANIMALS 

l)ar(s of  the  oarth,  there  aro  aL<o  vast  areas  of  scrul)  and  grassland 
I^oth  of  tliese  are  more  or  less  mixed  with  the  .iungl(>  and  with  each 
other  by  reason  of  ^ariatioIls  in  soil,  alliludc,  and  relief.  ( )n  a  sini- 
])lified  <ilol)e  ihe  scrnl)  wonld  foi'in  a  hand  on  eaeli  side  of  thi'  ecinator 
where  the  jnntiie  diminishes  in  hei^lit  and  vigor  because  of  the  increase 
in  the  lcnt:th  of  the  dry  season  as  one  <rets  farther  from  1  he  e(|nat.or. 
In  the  scrub  regions  the  l)ushes  are  gr(>en  fully  half  the  year,  but 
lose  their  leaves  during  the  dry  seiison  and  look  like  a  s(M'ond  growth 
in  an  American  woodlot.  late  in  the  autumn.  Occasionally.  ho\ve\-er, 
a  bare  bush  covered  with  great  red,  wiiite,  yellow,  or  i)urple  tlowei-s 
makes  one  realize^  that  he  is  within  the  tro))ics  and  only  10'^  to  20° 
from  th(>  ecjuatoi'.  In  l"ig.  S!)  it  is  not  easy  to  show  the  location  of 
areas  of  tropical  scrul)  with  any  accuracy  ])ecause  they  are  a])t  to  l)e 
small  and  scattered.  They  occur,  liowever.  in  many  parts  of  southern 
Mexico  and  ('entral  America,  c(Mi1ral  and  southern  Africa,  the  drier 
parts  of  the  plateau  of  India,  and  the  northern  jiortion  of  Australia. 
Although  civilization  is  low  in  such  regions,  it  is  often  higher  than  in 
the  jungle  regions,  as  apiM'ni's  in  Yucatan  an<l  the  noilhcrn  ])art  of 
the  Deccan  Plat(>au  in  India.  This  is  l)ecause  disease  is  less  rife  than 
in  the  insect-infested  jungle  regions,  more  work  is  nee<lcd  to  get  a  living, 
:md  more  care  must  be  taken  to  provi<lefood  for  the  long  dry  season. 
(4)  Sarannn. — As  one  proceeds  away  from  the  equator  on  a 
sim])lifie(l  globe,  the  scru])by  brush  lands  gradually  give  phico  to 
broad  gi'assj^  areas.  Sometimes  these  are  dottcul  with  cluni|)s  of  trees 
or  bushes,  the  out])osts  of  the  forest  and  the  scrub.  In  otlun-  ])laces 
they  are  al)solutely  treeless  except  along  the  rivers.  The  "])ainpas" 
of  Argentina  and  the  "Llanos"  of  Venezuela  are  sonu^  of  the  ])est 
known  savannas.  In  central  Africa  among  the  highlands  and  farther 
north  in  the  great  ])laiiis  of  the  Sudan  similar  grasslands  are  d(>velo]HHl 
on  a  vast  scale,  while  in  northern  India  and  noi'thern  Ihirma  they 
occur  in  large  patches.  The  ])arts  of  such  savannas  where  trees 
alternate  with  grass  are  almost  ideal  for  l)ig  game.  The  trees  furnish 
slu^lt.er.  while  the  grass  fu'Tiishes  food  for  innumerable  animals  sucji  as 
butfaloes,  aiitelo])e,  giraifi's,  zel)ras,  elephants,  and  many  snuUler 
h;'rl)i\'orous  s]iecies,  and  these  in  turn  su]i]ily  food  for  lions,  tigers, 
leo])ards,  and  other  (■ariii\()i'es.  l"or  man,  howcAcr,  the  savannas 
are  not.  so  good.  The  grass,  to  Ik>  sure,  fm'iiislu^s  food  for  cattle, 
although  it  is  a])t  to  be  nuich  tougher  and  less  nutritious  than  the 
grass  of  moi'e  northern  regions.  In  the  long  dry  season,  howcA'cr, 
water  can  be  procured  only  from  wells  of  exti-eme  dei)th.  The  sod 
is  yf)  tough  that  it  is  difficult  to  plow.  Hence  most  of  the  natives 
((!'  tropical  grasslands  wander  from  |)l;ice  to  place  with  tlieii-  cattle. 
A  gootl  example  i>  t  he  Kallirs  of  South  Africa,  among  whom  prices  are 


THE   EARTH'S   GARMENT  OF   VEGETATION  273 

reckoned  in  so  many  cows.  Many  tropical  highlands  also  have  large 
areas  of  gi'asslands,  and  these  are  among  the  best  parts  of  the  tropics 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  plateau  around  Mexico  City. 

(5)  Deserts. — Poleward  from  the  grasslands  the  desert  begins. 
Usually  there  is  no  sharp  transition,  for  the  gTassland  and  sometimes 
the  scrub  gi-adually  diminish  as  one  passes  into  regions  where  the 
equatorial  rain  belt  has  less  and  less  effect.  On  a  siaiiplificd  globe  the 
deserts  would  be  most  pronounced  between  25°  and  30°  from  the  equa- 
tor, where  the  subtropical  area  of  high  pressure  and  the  trade  \\inds 
prevail  alternately  according  to  the  season.  On  the  actual  earth, 
however,  the  deserts  occupy  these  latitudes  only  on  the  western  sides 
of  the  continents,  while  rainy  monsoon  areas  lie  on  the  east.  To 
make  up  for  this,  as  it  were,  the  deserts  extend  into  much  higher 
latitudes  in  the  interior  of  the  continents,  especially  in  Asia. 

Both  grasses  and  bushes  are  found  in  the  deserts.  The  plants 
which  support  such  wandering  people  as  the  Arabs  consist  of  grasses 
and  other  small  herbaceous  forms  wliich  sprout  quickly  after  the  in- 
frequent rains,  remain  green  only  a  few  weeks,  and  then  wither  and 
disappear  so  quickly  that  one  would  never  know  they  had  existed. 
In  most  deserts,  however,  there  is  also  a  more  permanent  tj^^e  of 
vegetation,  consisting  of  httle  bushes  spaced  far  apart  so  that  each  has 
a  large  area  where  it  can  spread  its  roots  horizontally  and  thus  get  as 
much  water  as  possible  from  each  infrequent  shower.  Some  t^T^es, 
which  gi'ow  in  hollows,  form  what  may  be  called  an  inverted  forest, 
for  the  roots  reach  far  down  to  ground  water,  and  are  so  large  that 
they  form  as  it  were  an  undergi'ound  forest,  far  bigger  than  the  small 
plants  that  rise  above  the  surface.  Tlu'oughout  most  of  the  desert, 
however,  the  water  table  is  so  deep  that  plants  are  luiable  to  reach  it. 

Although  the  total  number  of  plants  in  a  desert  is  small  compared 
with  moister  regions,  the  number  of  species  is  large.  Not  only  are 
there  the  relatively  long-lived  bushy  types  and  the  temporary  gi'asses 
and  the  other  herbaceous  forms  which  grow  up  quickly  after  rains, 
but  in  the  moist  spots  there  are  the  same  kinds  as  in  regions  of  abim- 
dant  rain,  while  around  the  salt  lakes  there  are  forms  sunilar  to  those 
that  grow  on  the  seashore.  In  addition  to  this  the  desert  is  full  of 
highly  specialized  plants  like  the  cactus  adapted  for  storing  large 
quantities  of  water.  The  cactus  can  retain  water  so  long  that  speci- 
mens which  were  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  hung  in  a  dry  place 
for  eight  years  still  retained  half  as  much  water  as  at  the  Ix^ginning. 
The  desert  of  northwestern  Mexico  is  the  lioiiic  of  a  cm-ious  almost 
leafless  bush  somewhat  larger  than  a  cun-ant  bush.  Its  stout  tapering 
stems  are  covered  with  a  glossy  bark  and  look  hard  and  woody. 
When  a  twig  is  cut,  however,  the  knife  goes  through  it  easily  as  if  it 


274        MANS    in;i..\ll(>X   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

were  made  of  wax,  and  (Imps  of  sap  begin  to  fall  almost  in  a  stream. 
The  bark  is  watcrjiroof,  Imt  wherever  it  is  broken  tiie  stored  water 
oozes  out  rapidly.  Hecause  of  the  necessity  of  :i(l;i])tinji;  ihemsclves 
to  extreme  aridity,  many  of  tiie  genuine  di'sert  ])iaiits  are  jx-culiarly 
awkward  in  a])i)earance.  Their  fat,  hairy  st(Mns,  their  s])ines,  and 
their  fuzzy  or  Icallicry  Icavi^s  seem  uiicnui  h  coniiJai'cd  w  ith  the  gi'aee- 
ful  vegetation  of  moister  regions. 

(0)  Subtropical  Dry  Foirst.- — '_)n  the  cooler  borders  of  the  desert, 
especially  on  the  western  side  of  the  continents,  the  vegetation  in 
latitudi's  30°  to  40°  or  more  consists  of  subtropical  dry  forest.  This 
is  also  found  on  many  mountains  which  rise  within  the  d(^s(>rt  itself. 
It  is  composed  of  small,  gnarled,  hni'd-leaxed  t  ices  or  bushes  which 
often  form  oi^en  park-like  expanses  through  which  it  is  easy  to  travel. 
In  some  places,  however,  they  g:i'aduate  into  a  tangle  of  bushes  above 
whicli  rise  frequent  trees.  For  exanii)le,  along  the  southern  coast  of 
Asia  Minor  the  lower  mountains  are  clothed  with  scattered  trees 
and  occasional  Imshes  which  give  an  open,  friendlj'  aspect  like  a  park. 
Higher  u]).  however,  toward  the  level  wheic  the  coolness  and  moisture 
of  the  mountains  cause  them  to  be  clothed  with  pine  forests,  there  is 
a  bushy  belt  almost  impossible  to  cross.  The  subtropical  trees 
whirl)  make  up  the  dry  forest,  altliough  not  conifers,  are  Ukely  to  be 
evergreens  like  the  hmrel,  olive,  holly,  and  live  oak.  This  is  an  ad- 
vantage, IxM-ause  the  winter  temperature  in  these  latitudes  is  often 
ciuite  high  and  as  the  rain  comes  chiefly  in  winter,  the  trees  can  grow 
even  at  that  season.  This  makes  u\)  in  ])iiYi  for  the  dry  sunmier  when 
growth  must  cease. 

(7)  Prairie. — In  the  table  of  Fig.  90  a  belt  of  prairie  or  steppe 
is  shown  in  latitudes  slightlj'  higher  than  those  of  the  subtro]iieal 
dry  forest.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  as  appc^ars  on  the  map,  subtro]>ical 
dry  forest,  desert,  ])i'airie,  and  deciduous  forest  all  occur  in  tlu'  same 
latitudes  in  both  North  America  and  l^urasia.  The  forests  occur  near 
the  coasts  and  the  deserts  and  jirairies  in  the  interior.  The  distri- 
bution of  ])i-aii-ies  de))eiids  on  the  season  of  rainfall  and  the  kind  of 
soil.  ( irasses  are  such  assertive,  tenacious  ])lants  that  they  can  drive 
out  the  trees  in  i^laces  wh(>re  trees  could  grow  if  nothing  else  inter- 
fered \\illi  them.  Thus  large  ])aits  of  the  American  prairies  and  the 
st.e])])es  of  liussia  and  Hungary  are  located  in  n^gions  where  certain 
kinds  of  trees  can  flourish  if  they  are  i)rotected  when  young.  The 
grasses,  however,  because  of  their  moi-e  ra,i)id  gi'owth  and  greater 
liardiness,  haxc.  dri\-en  out  the  ti-ees.  0^•er  niost  of  the  prairie 
region  the  rainfall  is  a])t  to  be  deficient  in  the  spring  when  the  trees 
especially  need  it.  Hence  when  seedling  trees  begin  to  grow  they  are 
at  a  disadvantage  and  are  strangled  1)}'  the  more  rapidly  growing 


THE  EARTH'S   GARMENT  OF   VEGETATION  275 

grasses.  If  such  a  region  is  swept  by  fires  or  is  grazed  l^y  herds  of 
animals  like  the  buffalo,  the  grass  and  seedlings  both  suffer,  but  the 
grass  springs  up  again  in  a  few  weeks,  while  the  young  trees  must 
start  from  new  seeds  and  hence  are  ousted  in  the  long  run.  Because 
of  their  stimulating  climate  and  rich  soil,  the  prairies  hold  high  rank 
in  both  agriculture  and  civilization,  as  is  shown  by  our  own  Middle 
West. 

(8)  Deciduous  Forests. — In  the  eastern  United  States  and  western 
Europe  the  prairies  give  place  to  deciduous  forests.  These  are  com- 
posed of  trees  like  the  maple,  beech,  oak,  and  poplar,  that  drop  their 
leaves  in  the  autumn.  They  grow  in  places  where  the  winters  are 
cold  but  not  extremely  long  and  where  the  smnmers  are  not  only 
warm,  or  even  hot  for  a  while,  Init  have  plenty  of  moisture  all  the  time. 
These  are  the  regions  of  cyclonic  storms  and  of  abundant  rains  at  all 
seasons.  The  regions  of  deciduous  forests  are  so  excellent  for  men 
that  they  have  been  largely  cleared  and  to-day  support  some  of  the 
world's  densest  populations,  and  contain  the  great  manufacturing 
centers  and  the  countries  that  stand  in  the  forefront  of  civi- 
lization. 

(9)  Coniferous  Forests. — In  an  average  latitude  of  about  50°  the 
other  types  of  vegetation  merge  irregiilarly  into  vast  forests  of  spruce, 
fur,  pine,  hemlock,  and  similar  coniferous  trees  which  thri\o  where 
the  winters  are  long  and  cold,  and  the  short  summers  warm  and  rainy. 
This  evergreen  forest  forms  a  great  belt  a(.'ross  Canada  and  another 
from  Sweden  through  Russia  and  Siberia.  On  the  whole  the  con- 
iferous forest  is  too  cold  for  agiiculture.  Hence  it  has  been  occupied 
by  settlere  only  in  the  southern  portions.  The  rest  still  stands  as  the 
world's  greatest  forest  reserve  outside  the  tropics.  "NMicre  the  con- 
iferous forest  region  is  inhabited,  the  people  are  generally  in  a  high 
state  of  civilization. 

(10)  Tundra. — Nearer  the  poles  the  coniferous  forest  gradually 
breaks  clown  into  a  ])clt  of  bleak,  grassj^  tundra.  The  seasons  are  too 
short  for  any  vegetation  except  gi'asses  together  with  lichens  and 
other  small  hardy  forms.  No  agi'iculture  is  possible.  The  reindeer, 
caribou,  and  niuskox,  however,  can  get  a  living,  though  they  nuist 
often  paw  away  the  snow  to  get  at  the  plants  beneath.  Hcnice, 
civilization  is  very  low  as  we  see  in  the  extreme  northern  ])art  of  Asia 
and  North  America. 

(11)  Polar  Dese7-ts. — Near  the  poles  in  laliludes  a.l>ov(>  75°  the 
temperature  is  almost  e^-(>rywh(>re  so  low  that  no  vegetation  can  exist 
unless  it  bc^  minute  bacteria.  Therefore  this  region  consists  of 
polar  deserts  like  nod  hern  Greenland  and  Antarctica,  which  are 
whollv  (l('\'(iid  of  inlKil)itants. 


276        MAX'S    HICLATION    TO    VEGETATION    AND   AM.MAL8 

It  is  worth  noting  tliat  in  polar  dosorts  it  is  not  tho  tonijMM-aturo 
alone  which  |)r()hil)its  the  <rrowth  of  jilants.  Th(>  lonjj;  period  wiicn 
the  ground  is  frozen  i)revents  th(>  plants  from  fiettinji  enou}z;h  water. 
There  is  no  way  in  which  loss  of  water  l)y  transpiration  can  be 
balanced  by  absorption  of  water  through  the  roots. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Classify  the  t>iies  of  vegetation  in  the  country  around  your  home  aceordinp 
to  Fig.  no.     What  clTcct  liave  the  variou.-^  type.s  upon  man's  life".-' 

2.  Draw  a  yirapli  shuwin^  llic  :ipi>n)\iinate  percentage  formed  by  each  of  the 
following  in  your  county:  {a)  laud  in  crops;  (6)  gra.ssland;  (c)  uncultivated 
l)asturc;  ((/)  productive  woodland;  (e)  waste  land.  Explain  the  geographic  con- 
ditions which  give  rise  to  these  proportions. 

3.  ^^■hat  ])ercentage  of  trees  in  your  region  lose  their  leaves  in  winter?  Make 
as  full  a  da-ssification  as  possible  of  the  difTcront  kinds  of  trees  in  your  vicinity 
and  of  their  uses. 

4.  Classify  the  main  crops  of  j-our  county  according  to  their  u.ses  and  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  and  amount  of  ground  which  they  occupy.  The  Census  returns 
will  give  you  the  figures  with  which  to  check  your  observations. 

5.  It  is  often  stated  that  the  lack  of  forests  in  China  is  due  to  the  constant 
cutting  of  the  trees  and  that  this  had  led  to  a  change  in  climate.  Modern  research 
gives  no  support  to  the  idea  that  deforestation  causes  climatic  changes.  What  do 
you  conclude  as  to  the  cause  of  the  absence  of  forests  in  China,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  following  facts:  (a)  the  length  of  the  growing  season  in  northern 
China  as  shown  by  some  of  the  temperature  and  rainfall  curves  in  this  book;  {b) 
the  relation  of  tree  growth  to  rainfall  in  spring,  summer  and  autumn,  respectively; 
(c)  the  fact  that  southern  China  has  many  trees  while  northern  China  has  few; 
(rf)  the  relative  density  of  population  in  north  and  south  China  (Figs.  37  and  38); 
(e)  the  fact  that  parts  of  the  United  States,  like  eastern  Kansas,  with  a  particular 
type  of  seasonal  distribution  of  rain,  are  treeless  while  regions  like  England,  with 
no  more  rain  but  a  different  seasonal  distribution,  have  many  trees. 

G.  "Wheat  is  merely  a  cultivated  grass  and  will  grow  anywhere  on  tlic  natural 
gra.ss  lands  of  the  earth."  Examine  carefully  the  truth  of  this  statement.  The 
answer  may  be  put  in  graphic  form  by  sui)erposing  two  maps,  one  showing  the 
natural  grasps  lands  of  the  world  and  the  other  the  areas  of  wheat  pn)(luclinii.  A 
written  interpretation  should  accomi)any  your  map. 

7.  A  few  years  ago  numbers  of  advertisements  aiii)eared  in  ICngland  (>inphasiz- 
ing  the  advantages  of  rubber  plantations  in  Hurmah.  Study  the  climatic  maps 
and  find  out  whether  the  climatic  conditions  justify  such  advertising. 

8.  From  Fig.  89  estimate  the  relative  areas  where  vegetation  is  seriously 
restricted  by  aridity  versus  temperature.  How  does  each  type  of  restriction 
influence  trans])ortatioii  and  interfere  with  the  general  intercourse  of  the  dilTiM-ent 
parts  of  the  world  . 

9.  In  the  text  savatuuis  receive  more  space  than  prairies,  deciduous  forests,  or 
coniferous  forests.  On  which  of  the  following  grounds  is  this  justifiable: 
(ii)  degree  of  familiarity  to  the  average  reader,  (l>)  amount  of  space  actually 
covered  as  shown  in  Fig.  89,  (c)  importance  to  civilization'^* 


CHAPTER  XIV 

VEGETATION  AND  MAN  IN  THE  WARMEST  REGIONS 

Section  I.  Life  in  the  Equatorial  Rain  Forest 

Equatorial  Rain  Forest. — ^It  seems  strange  that  the  finest  vegeta- 
tion should  be  associated  with  the  most  backwai'd  ty]ies  of  men. 
Such  is  the  case  in  ecjuatorial  regions,  where  high  temperature  is 
accompanied  by  abundant  moisture  at  practicallj''  all  seasons.  The 
trees  are  often  so  huge  and  leafy  that  their  lofty  tops  form  an  almost 
unljroken  canopy  through  which  the  sun  rarely  shines.  In  these  dense 
equatorial  ;-a//H/o/r.s/.s  the  trees  are  often  covered  with  l>right-colored 
parasitic  plants,  while  long  vines,  or  leaves,  hang  down  like  great 
living  ropes.  Near  the  ground  there  is  little  vegetation  except 
where  the  death  of  an  old  tree  has  left  an  opening.  Thcr(^  hosts  of 
young  plants  gi'ow  so  fast  that  they  seem  to  be  racing,  the  prizc^  being 
life  for  those  that  attain  dominance,  and  death  for  the  rest.  As 
shown  in  Fig.  89  such  forests  occur  in  the  Amazon  basin  eastern 
Central  America,  west  central  Africa,  the  East  Indies,  nortneastern 
AustraUa,  and  the  parts  of  India  on  the  seaward  slope  of  the  main 
mountain  ranges. 

Handicaps  to  Health. — In  such  regions  man  is  subject  to  most 
serious  handicaps.  He  has  little  energy,  ]3ecause  the  damp,  st(nxdy 
heat  never  changes  and  never  invigorates.  H(^  suffers  t(>rribly  from 
malaria  and  other  1i'o])icnl  (Useases.  When  ground  was  l)eing  In-oken 
for  a  raih'oatl  in  the  forest  of  eastern  Guatemala  the  managejnent 
dared  not  kec^p  the  ^^'{^st  Indian  lal)orers  at  work  more  than  two  or 
three  weeks  at  a  time.  A  longer  stay  would  ahnost  surel}'  have  led 
to  death  from  malignant  malaria. 

Along  with  the  trying  concHtions  of  cUmat(>  and  dis(\ise  go  a  host 
of  insect  pests  and  other  little  irritations.  In  Libeiia.,  for  example, 
moths  eat  up  clothing;  cockroaches  devour  ])()()kl)iiuling-s  and  swarm 
in  the  detached  cookiiouse  which  takes  the  i)lace  of  a  ki(<'h(>n;  rats 
climb  to  seemingly  inaccessible  locations  and  leave  nothing  but  tiie 
fragments  of  the  treasurers  they  have  eaten;  white  ants  consume*  the 
sills  of  houses  and  the  rungs  of  chairs,  wliich  col]a])se  most  unex- 
pectedly; (.h'iver  ants  sweep  through   the   house,   and  cveiy  oth«ir 

277 


278        MANS    llELATloX    TO    \EG1:TAT1(»N    AXI)    ANIMALS 

croatiiro  fvdin  man  to  lizard  must  vacato  ovon  if  it  l)o  in  thr  midst  of 
rain  and  llic  dead  of  nifjlit;  "jisf?<'i"s"  l>oro  under  the  skin  of  tiio  foot 
and  lay  their  e^Rs;  ficas  bite;  the  dani])  heat  ])ro(hiees  rash  afj;ainst 
whieh  the  lij^htest  clothinfi;  feels  lik(>  nettles.  These  things  and  a 
hundred  others  are  irritating  enouf«;h  at  any  timf\  hut  through  the 
blur  of  a  "touch  of  sun"  or  the  haze  of  a  liiirniiiir  fev<T  ihey  assume 
pro])ortions  out  of  all  reason.  The  odors,  the  mists,  the  si<rhts,  the 
sounds  f«;et  on  the  nen'es;  the  hea\y,  drooping.  sil(>nt,  impenetrable 
green  forest  every^vhere  shuts  one  in  like  a  smot  heving  <ii-a\-e ;  t  he  mind 
grows  sifk.  and  the  Ixxly  follows. 

Scarcity  of  Beasts  of  Burden. — A  second  great  haiulica])  in  v(\\\a- 
torial  ra ill-forests  is  the  difficulty  of  kee])intr  domestic  animals  even 
in  the  clearing's.  Noxious  insc^'ts  ])lague  animals  almost  as  badly  as 
they  plague  luan.  For  exami)le,  in  large  parts  of  troincal  Africa  the 
bite  of  the  tsetse  fly  not  only  causes  the  deadly  sleeping  sickness  in 
man,  but  is  fatal  to  domostio  animals,  for  even  the  donkey  is  not 
inunune.  Even  if  animals  escape  disease,  they  rarely  thrive,  for 
what  little  grass  can  grow  among  the  luxuiiant  trees  is  usually  so 
rank  and  coar-^e  that  it  is  not  nutritious. 

Difficulty  of  Transportation. — The  difficulty  of  keeping  domestic 
animab  em])hasizes  another  great  handicap  of  1  he  equatorial  forests, 
namely,  the  difficulty  of  transportation.  If  the  natives  attempt  to 
travel  through  the  forest  without  I'oads,  they  encounter  swamps, 
great  projecting  roots,  dense  thickets,  and  other  obstructions  as 
bad  as  anything  oiu'  ancestors  met  v.hen  they  first  settled  in  America. 
They  are  also  likely  to  be  attacked  by  wild  beasts  and  snakes, 
as  well  as  by  poisonous  insects.  Suppose  sonuHJiie  has  energy 
enough  to  clear  away  the  forest  for  a  road.  New  plants  spring 
up  almost  overnight,  and  grow  10  to  20  feet  in  a  year.  The  map 
of  Quintana  Hoo,  the  densc^ly  foi'ested  and  uninhabited  southein 
l)art  of  the  "\'ucatan  peninsula,  foi- (>xample,  shows  a  mnnber  of  I'oads, 
but  when  a  ti'aveler  wish(>s  to  follow  them  he  is  told  that  they  do  not 
exist.  TIp'v  were  kept  open  a  few  years  when  chide,  the  sap  fi'om 
which  chewing  gum  is  made,  was  l)(>ing  gathered,  but  when  this  work 
was  finished  tlu^  trails  were  smothercxl  in  vegetation  within  two  or 
three  years.  .\  macadam  road  or  e\-en  a  I'aih'oad  may  suffer  the  same 
fate,  although  more  slowly.  On  the  railroad  that  runs  from  the 
(lulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  across  the  istlunus  of  Tehaun- 
tepec,  for  example,  men  nmst  be  explove<l  to  (ait  the  bushes  eveiy 
few  months.  Where  connnunication  is  so  (li(iicult.  ])(V)ple  naturally 
can  profit  lit  tie  by  intercoui'se  with  oIIum's  who  bi'ing  new  methods  and 
ideas.  Bolivia.  Peru,  Ivaiadoi-,  and  ('olombia  sulTer  greaily  because 
tlie  ef|Uatoi'iaI  forests  wliich  licuin  on  the  easlciii  slo])e  of  the  Andes 


VEGETATION  AND   MAN   IN  THE  WARMEST  REGIONS     279 

hamper  communication  with  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent,  and 
so  with  lun-ope. 

Difficulties  of  Agriculture. — Another  and  even  gi-eatcr  handicap 
of  tlie  eciuatorial  forest  is  the  difficulty  of  carrying  on  agriculture. 
When  our  forefathers  cleared  the  forests  of  America  their  task  was 
child's  play  compared  with  the  clearing  of  an  equatorial  forest.  Not 
only  did  they  encounter  smaller  trees  than  those  of  the  tropics,  but 
they  cut  pine,  birch,  beech,  and  other  soft  woods  most  of  the  time, 
and  not  mahogany,  teak,  rosewood,  and  other  tropical  species  as  hard 
as  oak.  They  cut  the  trees  in  the  cool  bracing  autunm  or  in  winter 
when  a  man  wants  to  work  fast  in  order  to  keep  warm.  Think  how 
different  it  would  have  been  if  they  had  had  to  cut  oak  trees  on  the 
muggiest  kind  of  hot  summer  daj^s.  When  the  trees  have  been 
felled  the  difficulties  of  the  would-be  farmer  in  the  equatorial  rain 
forest  have  only  begim.  On  our  farms  at  home  it  is  hard  work  to 
keep  down  the  weeds,  ]:>ut  suppose  the  weeds  gi-ew  a  foot  or  two  a 
month,  and  kept  on  growing  twelve  months  in  the  year.  How  could 
anyone  keep  them  down !  The  useful  plants  would  be  choked  almost 
before  they  sprout  from  the  seeds.  That  is  what  happens  in  the 
equatorial  rain  forest.  Unless  the  inhabitants  possess  a  vigor  far 
surpassing  tliat  of  the  best  farmers  of  the  temperate  zone,  successful 
agriculture  is  un])ossible. 

Natives  and  White  Men  in  the  Equatorial  Rain  Forest. — We  are 
apt  to  look  down  upon  the  ahnost  naked  Pai)uans  of  New  Guineaj 
Pygmies  of  Central  Africa,  and  aboriginal  Indians  of  the  Amazon 
basin.  We  wonder  at  people  who  still  live  by  hunting  with  poisoned 
arrows,  who  make  their  homes  in  little  huts  in  the  trees  or  on  poles, 
who  run  and  hide  at  the  sight  of  a  stranger,  and  who  have  notliing 
that  can  be  called  civilization.  Vie  ought  rather  to  pity  them,  for 
even  we,  with  all  our  ojiportunities,  have  not  yet  learned  how  to 
cultivate  the  lands  in  the  eciuatorial  forest,  maintain  good  roads,  and 
avoid  the  enervating  effect  upon  health  and  character.  We  do  these 
things  in  the  Panama  Zone  where  many  people  are  gathered  in  a  small 
space,  where  vast  smns  of  money  are  available,  and  where  everyone  is 
under  government  order's,  but  that  is  very  differ(>nt  from  the  oixlinaiy 
forest  region.     No  wonder  the  natives  make  little  ])i'()grcss. 

Vegetation  gi'ows  sora])idlyin  regions  of  equatorial  rain  forests  that 
they  might  be  the  most  productive  parts  of  the  whole  world,  proA-ided 
men  knew  how  to  cultivate  them.  As  yet,  however,  we  o])tain  from 
them  only  rubber,  chewing  gimi,  quinine,  mahogain'.  and  other  forest 
products.  The  natives  are  employed  by  the  white  man  to  search 
for  the  trees  from  which  these  products  are  dinived,  but  such  work 
does  not  advance  ci\iIization.     In  tenijKTate  regions  trees  of  oiu>  kind 


280        MAX  S   REL.\TION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

often  cover  many  squaro  niilc^s,  l>iit.  within  the  tropics  a  pjeat  variety 
of  sjiecies  usually  grow  together.  So  the  natives  wander  through  the 
forests,  climbing  tall  trees  sometimes  to  look  out  over  the  top  of  the 
forests  and  i)ick  out  specunens  of  the  sjiecies  they  are  seekhig.  Then 
they  ta])  the  rubl)er  trees  and  collect  the  sap,  or  call  the  axman  to 
chop  down  a  fine  rosewood  tree.  Their  overseers  arc  often  brutal 
white  men  who  have  come  to  the  tropics  sunply  to  get  rich.  Un- 
checked l)y  the  restrictions  of  ci\'ihzation  such  men  use  the  most 
outragous  means  to  gain  wealth  or  to  compel  the  natives  to  do  a\  hat 
they  wish.  Disappointment  and  ill  health  make  them  more  and  more 
l)rutal,  so  that  they  often  treat  the  natives  most  cru(>lly.  Altogether 
the  natives  are  by  no  means  im])rov(Ml  by  their  wdrk  for  the  white 
man.  They  merely  get  a  jnttance  which  they  s])en(l  for  drink  or  for 
useless  fiiuny.  They  are  isolated  not  only  from  the  n'st  of  the  world, 
but  from  one  another,  for  their  mode  of  life  pennits  only  the  scantiest 
]M)])ulation.  For  in  s])ite  of  our  twentieth  centmy  progi'ess  the  equa- 
torial rain  forest  still  remauis  ahnost  the  worst  enviromnent  for 
man. 

Section  II.  Life  ix  Troi'ual  Jungle  Regions 

The  Appearance  of  Tropical  Jungle. — Tlu'  equatorial  rain  forest 
does  not  occupy  tiie  whole  of  the  warmest  n^gions  which  form  the 
subject  of  this  chapter.  Parts  of  it  are  occupied  by  less  luxuriant 
tjTX!S  of  vegetation.  As  one  passes  from  the  equatorial  regions  of 
greatest  and  steadiest  rainfall,  the  size  of  the  trees  and  the  density 
of  their  stand  dhninish.  Tropical  jungle,  the  second  heading  in  the 
table  of  Fig.  90,  takes  the  place  of  the  drii)])iiig  rain  forest,  and 
the  conditions  of  life  correspondingly  improv(\  Tiiis  doc^s  not 
mean  that  trhe  vegetation  is  small  or  scanty.  Larg(^  trees  still  grow 
in  abundance,  but  among  such  kinds  as  mahogany,  teak,  rosewood, 
and  logwood,  one  hnds  also  a  l)ewildering  variety  of  palms,  bamboos, 
tree  ferns,  Ixuianas,  canes,  and  many  shrubby  t>iies.  In  drier 
regions  prickly  crecpei-s  and  thorny  shrubs  add  to  the  variety  of 
plants.  For  miles  the  tangle  of  vegetation  is  often  so  dense  that  one 
can  penetrate  it  only  by  cutting  a  path  through  the  living  wall.  Now 
and  then  a  grou])  of  chattering  monkeys  goes  swinging  through  the 
tree-toi)s,  parrots  with  hai-sh  voices  call  attention  to  their  own  beauti- 
ful colors,  and  the  jaunt}'  crow  of  the  jungle  cock  reminds  one  of  the 
barnyard.  Oecnsionally  an  e]ei)hant  is  seen  browsing  on  the  bushes, 
deer  junqi  through  the  o]ienings,  wild  ])igs,  dogs,  and  rodents  scamper 
through  the  l)rush,  while  tigei-s,  let)i)ards.  and  other  beasts  of  jirey  lie 
in  wait  on  low  branches  or  prowl  in  secret  i)aths  hidden  fioni  the 
sight  of  man. 


VEGETATION   AND   MAN   IN   THE   WARMEST   REGIONS     281 

Ease  of  Jungle  Life. — ^In  regions  where  tropical  jungle  still  prevails 
in  its  natural  state,  the  people  get  a  Uving  with  little  effort,  provided 
the  population  is  not  dense.  The  cocoanut  and  banana  furnish 
food  with  practically  no  work,  the  big  fruit  of  the  papaw  suppUes  a 
family  with  a  meal  for  the  plucking.  Wild  rice  in  Siam,  yams  in 
Central  Africa,  the  edible  seeds  of  the  bamboo  in  southern  India,  can 
be  gathered  when  needed.  Elsewhere  the  breadfruit  tree,  the  sago 
pahn,  the  sugar  palm,  the  jack-fruit  tree,  and  many  other  food-pro- 
ducing plants  need  only  be  planted  and  protected  in  order  to  furnish 
abundant  food.  Life  is  relatively  easy  and  the  natives  have  little  to 
spur  them  to  effort.  Clothing  is  a  luxury,  not  a  necessity;  houses 
need  to  be  Httle  more  than  a  thatch  of  pahn  leaves  set  on  a  rude  frame 
of  poles;  wood  for  building  and  cooking  can  be  picked  up  anywhere. 
Lender  such  conditions  we  should  not  expect  much  progress  in  the 
well-watered  jungle  regions  of  southern  IncUa  and  Ceylon,  Indo- 
China,  the  East  Indies,  Central  America,  and  large  areas  on  the 
borders  of  the  dense  rain-forest  in  Africa  and  South  America.  These 
are  the  places  which  we  think  of  as  tjT^ically  tropical.  They  form 
by  no  means  all  of  the  tropical  zone,  for  rain-forests  on  the  one  hand 
and  grass  and  dry  scrub  on  the  other  occupy  vast  areas.  Yet  regions 
that  were  originally  covered  with  jungle  are  the  home  of  the  majority 
of  tropical  people. 

The  Primitive  Character  of  Jungle  Agriculture. — The  lowest  and 
easiest  type  of  agriculture  is  found  in  the  s]iai"sely  settled  parts  of  the 
tropical  jungle.  It  consists  of  plantmg  a  few  palm  trees,  banana 
plants,  and  other  fruit  trees.  After  that,  as  is  jokingly  said,  the 
native  has  nothuig  to  do  except  lie  mider  the  trees  and  wait  for  the 
fruit  to  drop  into  his  mouth.  Such  agriculture,  if  we  may  call  it  by 
that  name,  is  a  step  toward  civilization,  but  only  a  slight  one,  for  it 
does  not  stmiulate  the  natives  to  steady  work. 

In  tlie  more  densely  populated  tropical  countries  a  somewhat 
higher  t>qoe  of  agricultiu'e  ]:)revails.  The  bushes  and  smaller  trees 
of  the  jungk^  are  luickcxl  down  and  the  larger  trees  are  killed  bj-  cutting 
off  a  girdle  of  bark.  At  the  end  of  the  dry  sc^ason  the  brush  is  dry 
enough  to  burn.  Then  the  primitive  farnuM"  goes  over  the  burned 
fudd  with  a  pointed  stick  making  lioU^s  into  which  seeds  are  dropped. 
A  little  rough  weeding  is  carried  on  until  the  young  jilants  are  large 
enough  to  take  care  of  themselves.  That  is  all  the  work  until  han'est 
time.  The  easiest  food  to  raise  is  such  starch}'  tubei-s  as  yams  and 
the  common  sweet  potato,  or  such  starchy  roots  as  the  cassava  or 
manioc  from  which  f)in'  tapioca  is  made.  Several  soft  varieties  of 
Indian  corn,  the  common  ]iumpkin,  and  various  kinds  of  beans  furnish 
a  supi)ly  of  food  more  heallhful  and  niorc  lasting  than  the  roots. 


2S2       MANS  i:i;i.\ri<)\  to  vi-xn-yiAiioN  and  animals 

the  roots.  They  also  I'cMiuiic  moic  cai-cful  i)hiiuun}i  ami  in()r(> 
work,  aiul  thus  have  a  corrc-ixJiHliiiiily  jifcater  cfToct  in  proiiidt  iii<i 
industry. 

Difficulties  of  the  Tropical  Farmer.  (1)  H(ipi<l  Kxluiu^ioii  of 
Soil.  Atiiiculture  in  tropical  countrios  is  more  difficult  than  in 
the  temperate  zone.  In  the  first  place,  the  soil  is  easily  exhausted,  or 
spoiled  hy  the  accumulation  of  bacteria.  The  constant  heat  and 
moist ui'c  cause  dead  vegetation  to  disapjiear  so  completely  and 
rapidl\'  that  the  soil  contains  little  humus  and  hence  little  nitioucn. 
()th(M"  ])lant  loods  aic  also  scarce,  t'oi'  as  soon  as  t  he  soil  is  dcconiposrd 
l)V  weathei'iiiii-,  the  heavy  rains  leacii  them  out.  Thu^  although  the 
lirst  crop  is  often  most  bountiful,  later  ones  dimini-^li  i-apidl>-,  e>])eci- 


Courlcsu  of  I'.  S.  Hi  imrlminl  iif  Auriculturc. 

Fig.  91.— World  I  )isl  rilmt  ion  of  Cattle 


ally  when  corn  and  millet  are  planted  and  bacteria  become  abundant. 
Hence  many  jungle  fainicis  cleai"  a  new  patch  of  jungle  every  two  or 
three  j'^ears,  and  often  every  year. 

(2)  Tough  drosses. — In  densely  populated  regions  the  same  land 
must  be  used  year  after  year  in  si)ite  of  th(>  scanty  crops.  Hvvc  other 
troul)les  ai'ise.  l'"or  instance,  if  other  weeds  ai'e  kept  down,  ti()|)ical 
grasses,  like  witch-grass  but  far  wor.se,  ofttMi  ovei'run  the  land.  In 
the  Philii)pines  "  cogon  "  grass  has  been  th(>  ruin  of  thousands  of 
fai'uiers  who  have  tried  to  use  fertihzcis  ;iiid  olhei'wise  follow  modern 
methods  so  as  to  keej)  the  sam(>  held  in  cult  i\'at  ion  for  a  numbei'  of 
years.  As  llie  grass  often  grows  as  high  as  a  man's  head  and  li.as 
correspondingly-  tough  roots,  no  oidinai'y  animals  can  diag  a  plow 
Ihromrh  it. 


VEGETATION  AND   MAN   IN   THE   WARMEST   REGIONS     283 

(3)  Sparsity  and  Poor  Quality  of  Domestic  Animals. — The  difficul- 
ties due  to  the  poor  soil  and  rank  grass  are  increased  by  the  fact  that 
in  the  jungle  regions  domestic  animals  generally  thrive  only  a  little 
better  than  in  the  equatorial  rain  forest.  In  proportion  to  the  popu- 
lation, the  United  States,  for  example,  has  nearly  thirty  times  as 
many  horses  and  mules  as  India,  and  50  per  cent  more  cattle,  even 
though  Indian  buffaloes  as  well  as  the  common  hmiiped  cattle  are 
included.  Moreover,  the  Indian  animals  are  of  poor  quality,  under- 
sized, ill-fed,  and  ill  cared  for.  Hence  not  only  arc  they  unable  to 
plow  tough  sod,  but  they  supply  onlj^  a  small  amount  of  manure,  es- 
peciallj'  in  the  moister  regions,  where  animals  are  least  abundant 
and  fertilizer  is  most  needed.  Even  in  moderately  dry  parts  of  India 
animals  are  so  scarce  and  fertilizer  so  valuable  that  people  often  pay 
for  the  privilege  of  having  goats  and  sheep  herded  on  their  fields 
during  the  night. 

(4)  Insect  Pests. — As  the  climax  of  his  difficulties  the  tropical 
farmer  has  to  contend  with  all  manner  of  insect  pests,  rusts,  blights, 
and  bacterial  infections.  They  are  woree  than  those  of  the  temperate 
zone  almost  in  proportion  to  the  gi'eater  luxuriance  of  vegetation. 
Thus  although  the  farmer  can  get  a  living  without  much  difficulty, 
he  is  greatly  handica])ped  when  he  attempts  new  methods. 

When  to  the  handicaps  of  poor  soil,  tough  grass,  few  domestic 
animals,  and  insect  pests  we  add  the  lack  of  energy  which  is  natural 
in  a  tropical  climate,  it  is  not  strange  that  through  long  ages  the 
jungle  farmer  has  acquired  the  habit  of  not  caring  whether  he  makes 
progress  or  not.  If  our  ancestors  had  lived  for  centuries  in  such  a 
region,  we  should  probably'-  l>e  as  inefficient  as  the  present  people  of 
the  tropical  jungle. 

The  Careless  Rice  Farmer  of  Ceylon. — The  inefficiency  of  tropical 
people  is  well  illustrated  ])y  the  way  in  which  rice  is  often  raised. 
When  the  fields  in  the  wet  districts  of  Ceylon,  for  example,  have 
been  thoroughly  saturated  by  the  first  rains  of  the  season,  or  by  water 
turned  on  from  irrigation  ditches,  the  soil  is  turned  up  with  a  rough 
spade  or  wooden  plow  and  then  trampled  with  the  feet  until  it  becomes 
a  creamy  paste  of  mud  on  which  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast.  When 
the  seed  has  germinated,  water  is  again  atUnitted,  and  the  rice  left  to 
grow  until  harv'est  time.  Then  the  water  is  turned  off  and  the  crop 
ripens  upon  diy  ground.  The  grain  is  harvested  with  sickles  and  is 
threshed  by  being  trodden  under  the  feet  of  bullocks.  It  is  winnowiul 
in  an  equally  primitive  fashion  by  being  thrown  into  the  air  from  flat 
basketwork  trays,  and  caught  again,  while  the  chaff  is  blown  away. 

The  people  who  practice  this  pruuitive  mode  of  rice  culture  are 
astonishingly  indolent.     For  instance,  in  1903  the  inhabitants  of  a 


284       MAN'S   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION    AND   ANIMALS 

certain  district  in  Coylon  raised  an  inmsiially  larf;c  cro]-)  of  rice.  They 
thereupon  sat  down  to  cat  it,  and  raised  not  a  Ijlade  of  rice  the  next 
year.  The  third  j-ear  their  seed  rice  was  ahiiost  all  they  had  left. 
This  was  sown,  but  the  crop  was  largely  destroyed  by  caterpillars. 
Then  these  lazy  peo]ile  wlio  had  not  worked  for  nearly  tv/o  years 
appealed  to  the  government  to  keep  them  from  famine. 

The  Skillful  Rice  Farmer. — Although  such  occun-ences  are  typical 
of  tropical  pcui)lc,  they  become  less  connnon  where  more  careful 
methods  of  rice  culture  are  employed.  In  many  regions,  for  example, 
the  rice  seed  is  sown  in  prepared  beds.  Then  after  five  or  six  weeks 
it  is  painstakingly  transplanted  to  the  fields  which  have  been  care- 
fully jjlowed  and  manured.  The  rice  fields  are  surrounded  by  mud 
embankments  so  constructed  that  water  can  l)e  held  there  week  after 
week,  not  standing  perfectly  still,  Init  gcnitly  moving.  The  beds  are 
occasionally  weeded  with  care  and  finally  the  crop  is  han'ested 
promptly  so  that  the  rip(^  gi-ains  may  not  fall  out  and  be  lost.  Under 
good  conditions  50  pounds  of  rice  will  furnish  seed  for  an  acre  of  trans- 
planted rice,  and  the  yield  will  be  2500  pounds  or  fifty-fold.  This 
amount,  when  combined  with  some  beans  or  meat  to  fm-nish  protein, 
is  ample  food  for  five  adults  a  year.  Thus  a  population  of  2000  per 
square  mile  is  possible.  On  that  basis  all  the  people  in  the  United 
States  could  bo  su^^Jiiorted  on  an  ar(>a  ecjual  to  Xew  York  State. 

How  the  Best  Rice  Farming  Promotes  Civilization. — Hice  cultine 
is  a  distinct  help  in  promoting  civilization.  For  one  thing,  a  rice 
farmer  can  profitably  keep  cattle.  Even  though  the  animals  are  small, 
they  can  plow  the  soft  soil  of  the  weedlcss  rice  fields.  As  they  can 
be  fed  on  rice  straw  the  scarcity  of  good  grass  is  not  important.  They 
also  enable  hmi  to  use  the  same  fields  permanently,  for  thej'  supply 
manure,  and  thus  the  soil  does  not  become  exhausted. 

In  the  next  place,  since  the  enrichment  of  the  soil  enables  the 
farmer  to  devote  his  energies  to  one  particular  piece  of  land  he  is 
likely  to  build  new  rice  beds,  take  care  that  he  has  a  good  supplj'  of 
water,  and  that  all  his  little  ditches  and  dikes  are  in  good  order.  He 
finds  that  the  work  of  one  year  gives  him  much  benefit  the  next. 
Moreover,  he  cannot  go  off  and  leave  the  rice  crop  untended,  for  a 
few  weeks  of  carelessness  will  ruin  it.  All  these  conditions  cause  the 
careful  rice-raising  jicoi^le  of  India,  Java,  and  Indo-C'hina  to  be  more 
industrious  and  reliable  than  other  tropical  farmers.  For  the  same 
reasons  they  are  more  hopeful  and  progressive,  since  they  have  learned 
that  their  efforts  are  not  in  vain.  Moreover,  as  the  pojnilation  whore 
rice  is  raised  is  much  denser  than  elsewhere,  wild  anijnals  do  less  dam- 
age than  in  other  tropical  regions,  roads  can  be  maintained,  and  the 
people  can  got  more  stimulus  from  one  another  antl  from  outsiders. 


VEGETATION   AND   MAN   IN   THE  WARMEST  REGIONS     285 


U 


f^ 


286      MAX'S  hi:lati()X  to  vf.c.etatiox  and  aximals 


VEGETATION  AND   WAN   IN   THE  WARMEST  REGIONS     287 

Possibilities  of  Plantation  Agriculture 

The  Products  of  Tropical  Plantations. — In  addition  to  nco  fann- 
ing another  kind  of  tropical  agricviltnrc  is  hol])inj2;  to  ])ro]not(>  civiliza- 
tion. It  depends  on  the  fact  that  the  jx'ople  of  more  Imicing  climates 
are  willing  to  pay  good  prices  for  tropical  products.  Before  the  days 
of  steam  navigation  when  Eiu'opeans  rarely  came  to  the  tropics, 
there  was  no  agTiculture  for  export.  The  rule  of  tropical  farmers  was 
"Grow  only  what  you  need  and  consume  only  what  you  grow." 

When  Europeans  came  to  the  tropics,  however,  they  began  to  want 
tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  rubber,  and  other  products.  These  at  fii^st  were 
luxuries,  but  fast  became  necessities.  In  general  they  are  not  like 
the  staple  food  crops  which  have  to  be  planted  each  year.  They  are 
tree  crops  which  do  not  require  frequent  renewal.  Hence  they  are 
raised  in  large  plantations  where  the  same  kind  of  tree  or  bush  is 
planted  over  wide  areas.  Coffee  is  a  good  example.  Although  small 
quantities  arc  raised  in  regions  such  as  Java,  Ceylon,  Central  America, 
and  Mocha,  where  it  first  became  known,  four-fifths  of  the  world's 
supply  comes  from  Brazil.  There  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of 
tropical  jungle  have  been  cleared  of  most  of  the  trees,  and  coffee 
bushes  have  been  planted  in  the  shade  of  the  rest.  Tea  flourishes 
under  similar  conditions,  although  it  grows  over  a  witler  range  of 
latitude  than  coffc-e.  It  is  raised  in  great  plantations  on  moist  sunny 
slopes  not  only  in  places  like  Ceylon  and  the  lower  Himalaj'as 
north  of  Calcutta,  but  especially  in  southern  China. 

In  the  same  way  Europeans  and  Anunicans  have  established 
large  plantations  for  the  cultivation  of  the  cacao  tree,  from  whose 
seeds  chocolate  and  cocoa  are  made.  Some  cocoa  conies  from  tropical 
Africa,  parti(nilarly  the  Gold  Coast  and  the  Island  of  Saint  Thomas, 
and  from  Asia  and  the  East  Indies,  but  still  more  is  deriv('(l  from  the 
jungles  of  Central  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  northern  part  of 
South  America. 

Bananas  grow  in  the  same  regions  with  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa. 
They  prefer  the  moister  parts  of  the  jungle  on  the  l^jrdei-s  of  the  e(iua- 
torial  rain  forest,  and  gTow  well  in  ])road  lowlands.  In  Central 
America,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  north(>rn  part  of  Soutli  Anu>rica 
gi-eat  corporations  from  the  United  States  have  cleared  thousaiuls  of 
acres  of  jungle  and  planted  it  with  tliis  easily  raised  fruit.  One 
great  company  employs  many  thousand  men  and  has  regular  lines 
of  steamships  to  luring  bananas  and  other  tro])ical  fruits  to  New 
Orleans,  Baltimore,  rhila(l(>l])hia,  New  York,  and  Boston. 

Rubber  is  raised  in  nnidi  the  same  way  as  bananas.  The  ])i'n- 
cip-il  plantations  are  in  Ceylon,   the   I'ast    Indies,   and   the   Malay 


288        MANS   REL.\TION   TO   VEGETATION    AM)   ANIMALS 

Peninsula.  Part  of  the  world's  supply,  to  bo  suro,  still  comos  from 
the  wild  (roes  of  tho  forests  of  Central  and  South  America,  hut  the 
plantation  is  of  (■(iiisl;iiitl\-  incicasiiiii-  importance. 

Still  other  trojjical  jjiants  such  as  the  manilla  hemp  of  the  Phil- 
ipjiines — the  best  of  fibers  for  stronji;  twine  and  ro])c — have  their 
home  in  the  jungle,  but  are  g;i-adually  being  raised  more  and  more 
exclusively  in  ]ilantations.  The  same  is  true  of  indigo,  which  is 
still  raised  in  large  ([uantities  in  India  and  Java  in  spite  of  the  gi'eat 
use  of  aniline  dyes  made  from  coal  tar.  Quinine,  the  great  remedy 
for  malaria,  is  another  article  which  was  formerly  derived  from  wild 
trees.  Now,  however,  the  cinchona  tree  from  whose  bark  it  is  made 
is  cultivated  in  ])lantations  not  onh'  in  the  Andean  countries  of  its 
origin  such  as  liolivia  and  Colombia,  but  in  Java,  Ceylon,  India,  and 
Jamaica.  The  sweet  bark  of  the  cumamon  tree,  raised  especially  in 
Ceylon,  is  another  sample  of  the  many  kinds  of  tropical  products 
which  are  being  more  and  more  used  by  Europeans  and  Americans, 
and  which  lend  themselves  to  plantation  agriculture. 

Sugar  as  an  Illustration  of  a  Plantation  Product :  Its  Importance. 
— The  most  imi)ortant  of  all  i)lantati()n  croi)s  is  sugar.  Two  hun- 
dred yeai-s  ago,  the  average  person  in  England  consumed  less  than  4 
pounds  of  sugar  per  year,  and  the  average  American  a  decidedly 
smaller  quantity.  Before  the  Great  War  the  average  English  con- 
sunii)tion  was  abnost  100  pounds,  and  the  American  over  80.  To-day 
sugar  has  become  such  an  important  food  that  the  average  English- 
spoaking  pei'son  consumes  a  third  as  much  of  it  as  of  wheat.  Ordi- 
narily ])eo])le  do  not  n^alize  the  ini])ortance  of  the  sugar  sup])ly,  but 
during  the  Great  War  almost  eveiyone  realized  it.  In  New  York  a 
*^,emporaiy  shortage  actually  led  to  riots  in  which  mobs  broke  into 
stores  that  were  sup])osed  to  have  a  sui)i)ly.  For  many  months  no  one 
could  buy  more  than  a  pound  or  two  at  a  tini(\  and  the  nain(>s  of  the 
buyers  were  carefully  recorded  so  that  no  onc^  might  get  more  than 
his  share. 

Sugar  from  Tropical  versus  Temperate  Regions. — About  half 
1  he  world's  sugar  comes  nornialh  fi'Din  1  lopical  countric^s.  A  century 
ago  the  whole  supj^ly  came  from  there.  The  ti'opical  sugar  is  made 
from  the  sugar  cane,  a  plant  from  6  to  12  feet  tall  and  resembling  a 
cornstalk  without  ears.  The  rest  is  made  from  beets  and  comes  from 
the  most  advanced  countries  such  as  Germany,  France,  Belgium, 
western  Russia,  and  the  United  States. 

Sugar  is  one  of  the  few  products  in  which  temperate  and  tropical 
regions  compete.  Tiic  tropical  regions  have  a  great  advantage  be- 
cause the\-  possess  cnormous  areas  fit  for  sugar  antl  as  yet  unused. 
Moreover,  the  sugar-care  is  naturally  able  to  yield  much  more  sugar 


VEGETATION  AND   MAN   IN  THE  WARMEST   REGIONS     289 

per  acre  than  are  beets.  The  tempei'ate  regions,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  the  gTeat  advantage  of  being  located  closer  to  the  chief  markets, 
so  that  their  sugar  saves  freight  charges,  and  of  l)eing  close  to  a  supply 
of  labor  that  is  vastly  more  efficient  and  economical  than  tliat  of  the 
tropics.  Because  of  these  conditions  the  Ix^et  and  its  methods  of 
treatment  have  been  so  much  improved  that  where  18  i)ounds  of  beets 
were  needed  to  make  1  ])oinid  of  sugar  in  183G,  only  a  third  as  many 
are  now  needed.  The  improvement  of  the  sugar-cane,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  scarcely  begun.  Like  many  other  tropical  products  it  is 
good  in  its  unimproved  state  and  the  backward  people  of  the  tropics 
have  not  thought  of  making  it  better.  Now,  however,  the  people  of 
the  temperate  zone  are  taldng  charge  of  sugar  production,  and  during 
the  next  few  decades  we  may  expect  as  great  an  unprovement  in  the 
cane  as  has  taken  ]ilace  m  the  Ixn^t. 

How  Sugar  is  Raised  in  the  Tropics. — Sugar  is  so  useful  and  so 
easily  extracted  from  the  sap  that  gi'eat  quantities  of  cane  are  raised 
in  little  patches  in  most  tro]iical  regions,  especially  where  there  is 
plentj'  of  sun  as  well  as  water.  This  home-made  sugar,  however, 
rarely  reaches  the  world  markets.  Their  supply  comes  from  big 
plantations.  Cuba  and  the  other  West  Indies  are  the  chief  sources 
of  the  Ajuerican  supi^ly,  but  almost  every  tropical  country  makes 
some  sugar.  Most  of  the  plantations  are  near  the  seacoast,  largely 
because  the  coastal  regions  are  not  only  more  accessible  than  the  in- 
terior, but  are  more  apt  to  have  the  kind  of  warm  damp  plains  which 
the  sugar-cane  loves.  Often  too,  the  nnmediate  coast  is  more  health- 
ful than  the  hot  steamy  plains  a  few  miles  inland.  This  is  particu- 
larh'  the  case  in  countries  like  British  Guiana,  wlien^  the  climate  is 
admirable  for  sugar,  but  bad  for  people.  The  nati\'e  labor  there  is 
so  inefficient  and  luu'eliable  that  it  has  l)een  necessary'  to  import 
la]x)rei's  from  the  East  Indies  and  India.  The  contrast  bc^tween  the 
natives  and  the  unported  labor  is  a  good  example  of  th(>  way  in  wliich  a 
rice-raising  ]wople  reac'hes  nuich  higher  le\'els  than  ]:)(M)})le  whose  agri- 
culture has  scarcely  risen  al)ove  the  point  of  growing  yams. 

INIany  cf  tlie  sugar  plantations,  not  merely  in  Guiana,  but  in 
most  sugar  regions,  are  of  large  size  and  highly  profitable.  In  Giiba 
wlience  the  United  States  gets  most  of  its  cane  sugar  some  plantations 
employ  as  niany  as  5000  people,  and  have  scores  of  miles  of  little 
porta])l(^  railways  which  can  be  laid  wherever  they  are  wanted  to 
bring  the  cane  from  the  fields.  In  the  Hawaiian  Islands  the  absence 
of  any  duty  on  sugar  iinpoiicd  into  the  United  States  has  helped  to 
make  sugar  the  dominant  product.  In  good  years  jM'ofits  of  three  or 
foil!-  hundred  dollars  per  acre  are  possible.  The  industry  is  so  jirofit- 
al)le  that  it  has  been  worth  while  to  go  to  great  expense  for  irrigation. 


290        MANS    UKLATlOX    TO   VEGETA'iloX    AM)    ANIMALS 

Wat(>r  has  ]^oon  puniporl  in  sonio  cases  to  a  level  several  Imiulred 
feet  al>()Ve  its  source,  -while  in  other  inslanc(>s.  tunnels  ha^■e  been 
l)uih  thi"()U^h  inoiuitniiis  to  briiiii'  the  water  from  llie  wiiulw  ard  side, 
where  it  is  (lejjosited  l)y  the  northeast  trades,  to  the  (hy,  suiniy 
leeward  side  where  the  cane  <in'o\vs  fastest  ])rovideil  it  is  well  watered. 

How  Plantations  Promote  Civilization. — Plantation  ap^iculture  is 
l)e<z;inninii;  to  have  an  ini])()rtant  effect  ui)on  tropical  civilization.  In 
])laces  where  there  are  no  ])lantations  white  a(lv(>ntin"ers  still  send  the 
iiatix'es  out  into  tlic  jiiniiie  to  pitliei"  wild  cocoa,  wild  ciiM-liona,  wild 
rul)l)er,  and  even  wild  hein]i  and  wild  bananas.  The  natives  live  as 
they  have  always  lived.  If  they  have  enoujih  to  eat.  they  stay  at 
home  no  matter  how  eaji'cr  the  white  man  may  he  to  coiii])lete  a  load 
for  his  vessel.  If  one  day's  work  pves  food  enoujiii  for  three  days, 
they  work  only  a  third  of  the  time,  no  matter  how  nuich  the  white 
man  com])lains.  If  thej'  contract  malaria  or  other  diseases  in  tlu; 
junf^le  they  die  without  care  or  medicine. 

On  the  plantations  these  things  arc  beginning'  to  be  changed. 
The  plantations  are  usually  owned  and  managed  by  Europeans  or 
Americans  who  have  a  ])ermanent  int(n-est  in  them.  On  the  best  and 
most  profitable  plantations  the  em])loyees  arc  obliged  to  live  in  better 
houses,  and  take  more  care  of  health  and  sanitation  than  tro])icaI 
peo])le  ever  thought  of  before.  Drains  arc  dug,  stagnant  )X)ols  arc 
tilled,  and  other  measures  are  taken  to  get  rid  of  niosc[uito(^s  and  other 
disease-bearing  insects.  Machinery  is  introduce*!,  and  the  natives 
are  taught  to  use  it.  At  fii-st  they  arc  rarely  C()m])et(Mit  for  any  l)ut 
the  shnplest  tasks.  Little  by  little,  however,  they  actjuire  skill  and 
industry.  Preference  is  given  to  those  who  work  regularly,  kvvp  their 
huts  neat,  obey  the  health  regulations,  and  show  evid(>nce  of  willing- 
ness and  al>ility  to  learn  the  com])licated  methods  of  the  white  man. 
Anollici-  iiicciitix  ('  to  progi'css  is  the  desii'c  to  imitate  the  wliite  man 
and  ])urchase  some  of  the  luxuries  dis])layed  in  tlie  com])any  stores. 

On  the  plantations  health  is  consid(>red  of  great  im])ortance. 
HosjMtals  are  ])i-o\  idcd  not  only  for  the  white  man,  l>ut  for  the  natives. 
Where  the  government  does  n(jt  su])i)ort  them  as  in  ("eylon,  tiiey  are 
often  run  by  ])riva,te  com])ajhes,  as  a  mat.ter  of  economy.  Tiie  largest 
fruit  com])aiiy  in  tidi»ic:d  Amei'ica  regularly  deducts  2  per  cent  from 
the  wages  of  its  eni])loyei's  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  and  uses 
the  mont'V  as  a  fund  to  ]M-otect  the  geneial  health.  Thus  the  strength 
of  the  natives  is  not  sapped  by  disease  so  much  as  formerly,  and  they 
are  better  able  and  more  willing  to  do  hard  work. 

As  the  ■|)lantations  increase  in  mnnbei',  the  ■])o])ul;it  ion  grows  more 
dense.  In  certain  i)laccs  such  as  iKirts  of  ,)aAa  the  land  is  so  fully 
occu])ied  th;  t  tlicic  cease  to  be  lai'ge  waste  areas  Vihere  lazy  natives 


VEGETATION  AND  MAN   IN  THE  WARMEST  REGIONS     291 

can  pick  up  a  living  on  wild  fruits.  Thus  while  the  plantations 
provide  the  opportunity''  for  steady  work,  they  are  also  making  it  less 
easy  for  people  to  get  a  living  unless  they  settle  down  to  such  work. 
Of  course  it  is  still  difficult  to  find  tropical  people  who  will  work  except 
when  compelled  to  do  so  l)y  hunger,  but  the  standards  of  life  are 
bc^ginning  to  rise.  This  is  bound  to  happen  more  and  more,  for  the 
tropical  zone  to-day  offers  perhaps  the  largest  and  richest  of  all  fields 
for  th(^  investment  of  ca]iita]  and  brains. 

The  Successful  Plantations  of  Java. — Java  under  Dutch  rule  has 
carried  the  plantation  system  farther  than  anj'  other  country.  There 
rice-growing  and  plantations  under  European  management  combine 
to  encourage  stead}'  work  to  a  degree  scarcely  eciualed  in  any  other 
tropical  rcgion  unless  it  be  Barbadoes  and  Jamaica.  As  one  re- 
sult the  population  has  increased  enormously.  We  have  no  figures 
for  earlier  tunes,  but  in  the  last  forty  years,  icithout  immigration,  the 
population  has  doubled.  On  the  less  rainy  north  side  of  the  island 
where  tropical  jungle  prevailed  l^efore  it  was  cleared,  large  areas  sup- 
port from  1000  to  1200  people  per  square  mile.  This  is  even  more 
dense  than  the  population  of  manufacturing  countries  like  Belgium 
and  England.  Yet  so  rich  are  the  lands  near  the  (^luator  that  Java 
does  not  raise  nearly  as  much  food  as  she  might  if  her  people  had  the 
energy  of  the  temperate  zone. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Wliich  of  the  elements  of  geographic  environment  (Fig.  1)  first  led  Euro- 
peans to  oxjilorc  the  tropics?  Which  elements  now  furnish  motives  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  Americans  and  Europeans  who  go  to  the  tropics?  Explain  in  detail 
the  geographical  conditions  which  make  it  far  more  necessary  for  Americans 
and  Europeans  to  keep  in  touch  with  tluur  old  homes  when  in  the  trojiics  than 
when  they  go  to  places  like  New  Zealand  and  Siberia?  Why  is  it  more  necessary 
for  Europeans  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  tropics  than  for  Americans? 

2.  In  the  Statesman's  Yearbook  or  elsewhere  look  up  the  exports  of  a  trop- 
ical land  mentioned  in  this  chapter.  Classify  the  exports  under  the  following 
heads:  (a)  products  of  wild  vegetation;  {h)  products  of  plantation  agriculture; 
(c)  non-vegetable  products.  What  geographical  reasons  can  you  see  why  one  or 
another  of  these  types  of  products  should  come  from  each  specific  country? 

3.  Examine  the  areas  covered  by  the  colonial  em])ires  of  England,  France  and 
Russia.  Classify  these  lands  according  to  the  vegetation  zones  in  which  they  lie. 
From  the  Statesman's  Yearbook  find  out  the  three  chief  products  of  a  country 
typical  of  each  zone. 

4.  (a)  Write  an  advertisement  for  a  land  company  with  larg(>  holdings  in  tlic 
tropica!  jungle  of  Venezuela.  Let  every  statement  be  absolutely  true,  but 
emphasize  the  advantages. 

(6)  Write  a  criticism  of  your  own  advertisement  pointing  out  the  disadvantages 
a  settler  would  find  in  taking  U])  land,  clearing  it,  building  a  house  and  barn,  rais- 
ing and  harvesting  his  crops  and  getting  them  to  market.   Show  in  what  respects  a 


292        MAX'S   RELATION    TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANLMALvS 


settler  from  Wisconsin  or  from  your  own  StatewouUl  be  especially  annoyed  by  his 
own  ijinorance  or  by  his  inability  to  pet  the  kind  of  labor,  transportation,  food, 
and  other  necessities  that  he  is  used  to. 

5.  Look  up  in  the  Xaiionnl  Geographical  Magazine  or  elsewhere  an  account  of 
the  struggle  to  render  the  Panama  Zone  healthful.  Write  a  short  resume  of  tiiis 
health  campaign  in  its  relation  to  geographical  conditions. 

(■).  In  the  government  reports  on  Foreign  Commerce  and  Navigation,  and  in 
the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  look  up  six  plantation  products  from 
tropical  countries,  ^hlke  a  table  as  follows  and  arrange  the  products  in  order 
according  to  the  increase  in  their  per  capita  use: 


A 

B 

C 

Product 

Percentage  of  increase  in 
imports  per  capita  for  20 
years. 

Chief  countries  of  origin. 

7.  In  Brazil  the  number  of  immigrants  arriving  during  the  year  before  the 
Great  W^ar  was  as  follows:  Portuguese,  2S,()()();  Spaniards,  19,()()0;  Italians, 
1G,()00;  Japanese,  4000;  Poles,  3000;  Syrians,  3000;  Austro-IIungarians,  1000; 
French,  700;  English,  500.  Determine  which  of  these  settlers  would  find  it 
easiest  to  adapt  themselves  to  (a)  the  coiTee  regions;  (6)  the  drier  grassy  region  of 
the  interior;  (c)  the  Amazon  valley.  Consider  this  question  from  the  point  of 
view  of  (1)  health;  (2)  agriculture;  (3)  customary  methods  of  house  building; 
(4)  use  of  animals. 


CHAPTER  XV 
LIFE  IN  SUBTROPICAL  AND  MONSOON     REGIONS 

How  East  Coasts  Differ  from  West  Coasts  in  Latitudes  20^  to 
40°. — Nearly  half  the  people  of  the  earth  live  between  latitudes  20° 
and  40°.  In  these  latitudes  each  continent  shows  a  strong  contrast 
between  a  spai-se  population  on  the  west  side  and  a  dense  popula- 
tion on  the  east.  This  is  because  the  west  has  its  rainy  season  in 
winter,  and  is  driest  in  smnmer,  while  the  east  receives  its  rains  in 
smnmer.  In  each  case  the  dry  season  is  due  chiefly  to  the  subtropical 
belt  of  high  pressure.  The  winter  rains  of  the  west  coast  regions  are 
due  to  the  invasion  of  cyclonic  storms.  The  relatively  dry  and 
sparsely  populated  west  coasts  are  called  subtropical.  The  siumnei- 
rains  of  the  east  coast  regions,  on  the  other  hand,  are  caused  by  a 
similar  invasion  of  the  subtropical  belt  by  the  monsoons  which  aid 
the  trade  winds  in  bringing  moisture  from  the  ocean.  Hence  the 
relatively  moist  and  populous  east  coasts  maj'  all  be  called  monsoon 
regions.  In  general  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  various  continents 
in  similar  latitudes  have  the  same  kind  of  climate  except  whiu'c  this  is 
modified  by  the  size,  shape,  and  relief  of  the  lands  and  Ijy  ocean  cur- 
rents. 

Where  Subtropical  and  Monsoon  Regions  are  Located. — In  I'^u- 
rasia  the  comparatively  dry  subtropical  regions  comprise  southern 
Spain  and  Portugal,  southern  Italy,  Greece,  Turkey,  and  Persia,  to 
which  should  be  added  the  neighl)oring  parts  of  North  Africa  l)or(ler- 
ing  the  IMediterranean  Sea.  These,  it  will  be  seen,  include  jn-actically 
all  the  most  famous  empires  of  antiquity,  such  as  Pome,  (Jreece, 
Babylonia,  Sjaia,  Egypt,  and  Carthage.  The  corresponding  populous 
monsoon  regions  on  the  east  side  of  Eurasia  are  the  great  Indo-Gan- 
getic  plains  of  India,  and  most  of  China  Proper.  These,  too  were  the 
seats  of  ancient  civilizations. 

In  South  Africa  the  tapering  of  the  conlincnt  brings  tlu>  subtrop- 
ical and  monsoon  regions  so  close  together  that  i)()th  are  included  in 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Yet  the  contrast  between  tlu>  dry  sul)- 
tropical  region  of  the  west  coast  around  Caj^e  Town  and  tlu^  wet  mon- 
soon region  of  the  east  coast  around  Durban  in  Natal  is  scarcely  less 
than  between  Greece  and  China,  for  example.  In  Australia  th(>  two 
regions  are  much  farther  apart,  but  the  contrast  is  nuich  the  same  as 

293 


294        MAXS    rj:LATI(^X    to    VEnilTATlOX    AM)    ANIMALS 

ill  South  Al'ric;!.  \\'('st('rii  Australia  is  so  dry  that  its  po])ulation  is 
only  onv  in  thn-c  s(|iuin'  miles,  wliilo  in  Quccnsliuul  and  New  Soiitii 
AValcs  on  the  cast  tiic  rains  arc  so  favorahlc  that  tlie  poi)uhition  is 
twenty  times  more  (lens{\ 

In  the  western  luMnis])hero  the  diy  subtropical  regions  of  northern 
Chile  contrast  stronj^ly  with  the  wet  monsoon  or  trade  wind  rcfiion  oi 
southern  l^iazil  and  Uraguay.  In  our  own  counti-y  California  and 
Utah  share  many  of  the  qualities  of  tlie  Methterranean  subtropical 
regions,  while  (Jeorgia  and  the  neighboring  States  have  the  monsoon 
qualities  of  abundant  sununer  rain  and  a  fairl}^  dense  population. 

A  Subtropical  Region  Contrasted  with  a  Monsoon  Region. — Let 
us  coni]);in'  :i  typical  subtro])ical  and  a  ty|)ical  monsoon  region  and 
see  how  tlic\'  dil't'er.  Sui)pose  a  friend  should  ask  you  about  the 
famous  Turkish  ])roAince  of  Ale])])o  and  the  ecpially  famous  Chinese 
province  of  Shantung  on  o]ip{)site  sides  of  Asia  in  latitude  34°  to 
38°  X.  ( 'ould  you  tell  which  has  the  greater  i)o])u]alion;  wliich  would 
be  a  better  field  for  a  ))ig  irrigation  project;  or  which  would  offer  a 
better  market  for  reaping-machines,  leather,  hoes,  or  cotton  cloth? 
Could  you  tell  ill  which  ])lace  one  could  buy  horses,  camels,  or  sheep, 
or  in  which  new  varieties  of  pigs  or  watermelons  might  l)e  found? 
When  you  understand  the  difference  between  subtro])ical  and  mon- 
soon climates,  you  will  easily  answer  these  questions  and  many  others 
with  no  hel])  beyond  a  good  ma]). 

A  Visit  to  a  Typical  Subtropical  Region. — Sui)])os(>  you  w(^re  to 
land  at  Alexandretta  in  August  and  ])roce(>d  inland  to  Ah^iipo,  the 
ca])ital  of  the  ])rovince  of  the  same  name.  You  could  easily  hire  a 
carriage  for  the  dusty  drive  of  60  or  70  miles,  but  it  would  bo  more 
interesting  to  tiaxcl  (»ii  horseback  along  one  of  the  many  trails.  The 
mountains,  which  must  hi-st  be  crossed,  are  covered  with  typical 
sul»tropical  \-egetation.  Sometimes  it  is  scru])])y  dry  forest.  Else- 
where it  is  grass  so  dry  and  l»ai'reii  that  you  wonder  what  su]))iorts  the 
flocks  of  shec])  tiiat  follow  the  ragged  shei)herd  l)oys  as  they  jiipe  on 
shrill,  wooden  flutes. 

The  i)iMii)le  li\c  in  the  valleys.  P>(^sido  every  s])ring  of  sufficient 
size  stands  a  village  surrounded  by  vineyards  and  by  groves  of  apri- 
cot, mulbeiTv,  fig,  and  po])lar  trees.  Asid(>  from  a  few  ])at('hes  of 
melons  and  onions  there  are  few  vegetable  gardei  s.  l'";icli  \illage, 
however,  ])ossesses  broad,  unfenced  fields  of  i)ale  yellow  stubj)le  wh(>re 
cattU^  are  now  browsing.  Two  months  or  niore  ago  the  grain  was 
cut,  and  the  cii'cular  Ihrcsliing  lloors  of  smoothly  ])acked  earth 
were  piled  with  golden  wheat,  and  ])aler  sti'aw,  or  ]>erchance  with 
barley.  Tlien  tiic;  grain  was  threshed  by  the  feet  of  oxen  and 
donkeys  diixcn   around   ami  around  oxer  the  straw.     Now  some  of 


LIFE   IN   SUBTROPICAL  AND   IMONSOON   REGIONS  295 

it  is  waiting  to  bo  carried  homo,  for  the  Oriental  docs  not  hurry. 
In  sjiite  of  its  long  staj^  in  the  open  air,  one  sees  no  evidence  that 
it  has  l)een  wet  by  rain. 

In  the  villages  the  houses  are  made  cither  of  sun-dricnl  adobe 
bricks  or  of  stones  plastered  with  nnid.  Some  have  low  pyramidal 
roofs  covered  with  red  tiles,  but  most  of  the  people  can  afford  only 
flat  earthern  roofs,  which  have  to  be  rolled  after  every  rain  to  keep 
them  hard.  The  women,  being  Mohammedans,  conc(^al  their  faces, 
but  one  occasionally  gets  glimpses  of  them  at  work  giinding  flour  in 
hand  mills,  or  doing  other  household  tasks.  The  men  and  boys  seem 
to  spend  most  of  their  time  loafing.  As  the  traveler  dismounts  they 
spread  a  rug  for  him  under  the  mulberry  trees  beside  one  of  the  little 
reservoire  that  hold  the  limited  water  supply.  Then  they  bring  coffee 
from  Mocha  in  Arabia,  and  wheat  bread,  mutton,  melons,  grapes,  and 
the  sour  milk  called  "leben"  or  "yowort." 

At  the  base  of  the  mountains  on  the  edge  of  the  great  inner  plain 
each  of  the  larger  vallej's  has  a  village  at  its  mouth,  and  fields  of  dry 
stubble  extend  for  miles.  As  the  traveler  proceeds  across  the  plain, 
however,  the  villages  and  fields  become  less  and  less  frequent,  until 
finally  a  group  of  low  black  tents  appears  beside  a  well,  with  a  flock  of 
sheep  and  a  drove  of  camels  not  far  away.  He  has  reachcHl  a  region 
too  dry  for  agriculture,  and  fit  only  for  desert  nomads,  A\ho  ^\'ande^ 
with  their  animals  in  search  of  water  and  pasture. 

The  Trade  that  Might  Flourish. — ^^^lile  riding  through  this  coun- 
try, you  would  perhaps  say  to  youreelf,  ''Not  much  chance  to  sell 
leather  here.  From  the  hides  of  their  numcn-ous  animals  the  people 
can  get  all  the  leather  they  want,  but  this  might  be  a  good  place  to 
buy  either  undressed  hides  or  wool.  Not  much  niarkct  for  hoes, 
either,  for  the  vegetable  gardens  are  small  and  gTain  (Ux^s  not  need 
hoes,  but  these  people  ought  to  plow  their  broad  holds  with  some- 
thing better  then  wooden  plows  and  reap  them  with  machines  instead 
of  hand  sickles.  How  good  those  melons  were?  AVe  ought  to  have 
that  Idnd  at  home." 

Why  Manufacturing  Does  not  Flourish. — Then  j-ou  might  fall  to 
wondering  why  manufacturers  do  not  thrive  when  there  scc^nis  to 
be  so  nmch  unemployed  labor.  During  the  reaping  season,  and 
again  in  the  fall  when  the  seed  is  sown,  \\\o  pcniplo  work  willingl}-  but 
slowly  from  dawn  till  dusk,  Init  b(>tweon  whil(\s  they  luv  idle.  Partly 
because  of  the  hot,  monotonous  sinmnei"s  and  partly  for  other  reasons, 
such  as  lack  of  education,  the  people  are  not  sufficiently  energetic, 
ambitious,  and  inv(Mitive  to  save  up  capital  and  ])uild  manufacturing 
plants  which  would  keep  them  busy  when  there  is  not  much  farm 
work. 


200        MAX'S   l?ET.ATIOX   TO   VKCETATIOX   AND   AXIMALS 

A  Midsummer  Visit  to  a  Typical  Monsoon  Region  in  Eastern 
Asia:  Transportation. — A  visit  to  Sluintvui}:;  at  the  same  season 
as  our  Aleppo  \isit  \\()ulcl  sliow  a  vciy  didcrent  scene.  Even  at  the 
steamer  landing  in  Tsing-tau  there  are  no  carnages  and  animals. 
The  only  vehicles  are  those  drawn  or  pushed  by  men.  For  passen- 
gers there  are  jiurikishas,  like  overj^rown  hahy  can-iages,  while  for 
freight  and  baggage  there  are  wheelbarrows  whh  the  wheel  in  the 
center  half  way  from  front  to  back,  instead  of  at  the  end.  In  the 
interior  away  froju  the  few  railroads,  j^ou  would  find  it  unpossibL 
to  hire  even  a  '"rikshaw,"  because  there  are  no  roads  for  these  two- 
\\  heeled  vehicles.  As  there  are  no  riding  animals  you  would  probably 
dcH'ide  to  walk  and  have  3'ovn"  l)aggag(^  carrii>d  on  a  wheel]:)arrow. 

Density  of  Population. — In  Shantung  one  meets  twenty  people 
to  one  in  the  Turkish  province.  There  are  villages  cverj'Avhere, 
made  of  adol)e  as  in  Turkc^}-.  Unlike  the  Turkish  villages,  however, 
they  are  rarely  surrounded  by  trees,  and  stand  bare  and  gi-ay  in  the 
midst  of  the  fields.  The  mountain  slopes  are  not  given  over  to  flocks 
and  shei^herds  as  in  Tiu-key,  1)ut  are  covered  with  terraces,  each  of 
which  is  a  Uttle  field  banked  up  with  a  wall  of  stone  or  earth.  Out  on 
the  plains  in  striking  contrast  to  the  Turkish  province,  the  population 
is  more  dense  than  among  the  foothills.  No  room  here  for  nomads 
and  camels  or  even  for  many  domestic  animals.  A  cow  or  a  horse 
needs  several  times  as  much  land  for  its  support  as  does  a  man. 
So  numerous  are  the  villages  that  there  is  not  land  enough  to  raise 
food  for  any  animals  except  pigs  and  chickens,  which  do  not  need 
room  for  pasture,  and  can  be  fed  on  refuse. 

How  Intensive  Farming  is  Carried  on. — In  Shantung  small  fields 
and  gardens  seem  to  be  the  rule  rather  than  broad  fields  such  as  we 
saw  in  Ale])])o.  This  is  no  place  for  complicated  farming  machiner>'; 
it  is  the  land  of  t.lie  hoe.  In  southern  Sliantung,  l>oth  men  and 
women  are  wading  about  in  rice  fields,  pulling  up  weeds  and  repair- 
ing little  dams  in  the  irrigatioji  channels.  Elsewhere  the  chief  crops 
are  wlieat,  millet,  Indian  corn,  and  vegetables.  Some  of  the  people 
are  carefully  canying  refuse  to  the  fields  in  pails  to  serve  as  fertilizer; 
others  arc  hoeing  the  gi'oimd  for  a  new  crop  after  radishes,  beans,  or 
peas  have  been  harvested.  Still  others  are  setting  out  seedlijigs  that 
have  been  raised  in  beds  as  our  greenhouse  men  raise  tomatoes  and 
pansies.  Thus  two  or  three  crops  arc  oiivn  procured  where  we 
would  rais(>  only  one. 

How  the  Monsoon  People  Supply  their  own  Needs. — So  busy  are 
the  peopU;  that,  the}'  scarc(>ly  take  tim(^  to  sleej).  lOven  in  winter 
they  work  harder  than  the  peasants  of  most  countries.  In  their 
homes  they  weave  cloth,  make  rope,  and  prc])ai'e  their  crude  utensils. 


LIFE  IN  SUBTROPICAL  AND  MONSOON  REGIONS 


297 


They  also  economize  in  every  possible  way.  For  example,  they  mend 
their  clothes  till  the  patches  hide  all  the  orifrinal  cloth.  It  would  seem 
as  if  niaiiiifactiiring  ought  to  thrive  among  such  people,  but  in  recent 
centuries  they  have  not  shown  nnich  inventiveness,  and  lunice  man- 
ufacturing has  made  little  j)rogress.  Accordhigly  it  would  s(Hun  as  if 
the  enormous  population  of  China  would  offer  a  fine  market  for  cheap 
cloth,  knives,  hoes,  and  other  inexpensive  manufactured  articles. 
The  only  trouble  is  that  because  the  people  are  so  nmuerous  and  un- 
inventive,  they  are  wretchedly  poor  and  have  only  slight  purchasing 
power. 

The  Effect  of  Winter  Rain  and  Summer  Drought  in  Subtropical 
Regions. — As  we  have  already  seen,  the  striking  difference  between 
the  provinces  of  Aleppo  and  Shantung  on  the  two  sides  of  Asia  is 


J     F   Mr  A    My  Jn  Jy    i 

L     8     0     S     D 

Aintal) 

^    J 

J     F  Mr  A   My  Ju  Jy    A    S     0    N     D 


Shang  -  Tung 


Fig.  94.— Subtropical  Versus  Monsoon  Rainfall. 


due  largely  to  the  rainfall — -not  the  amount,  for  in  that  respect 
Shantung  has  only  a  slight  advantage,  but  the  season  at  which  it 
falls.  In  Fig.  94  compare  cUagrams  A  and  B,  showing  how  nmch 
rain  falls  each  month  in  the  two  regions. 

In  the  subtropical  climate  of  Alei)])o  abundant  rain  normally  falls 
during  the  winter  from  November  to  March,  but  the  sununer  from 
June  to  September  is  practically  rainless.  Hence  corn,  beans,  pota- 
toes, and  most  veg-etables  will  not  gTow  well  without  irrigation. 
The  same  is  true  of  oats,  rye,  millet,  and  th(>  kinds  of  wheat  and  bar- 
ley that  are  planted  in  the  spring.  On  the  other  hand,  ir/zi/cr  wheat 
and  barley  grow  excellently  without  imgation.  The  seed  is  sown 
in  October  and  Xovenilxn-,  when  the  rains  fii*st  become  abundant; 
it  sprouts  ])efore  the  weather  is  cold,  gi'ows  a  little  during  the  mild, 
open  winter,  and  is  ready  to  grow  rai)idly  in  INIarch,  Ai)ril.  and  May. 
The  dryness  from  May  onward  is  favorable  to  ripening,  and  makes  the 


298      MANS  Hi:i,\'i'iox  of  vf/iktattox  axd  animals 

work  of  h:ir\osting; easy,  since  there  is  little  trouble  from  storms.  The 
fields  of  stubble  furnish  pastmv  for  animals  during;  the  dry  sum- 
mer when  other  -[lasturafic^  is  especially  difiicult  to  find. 

The  Effect  of  Summer  Rain  and  Winter  Drought  in  Monsoon 
Regions. — Look  ajiain  at  Fig.  94,  and  not(^  the  contrast,  lu'tween 
diai;iains  A  and  B.  When  the  subtropical  rainfall  of  Turkey  is 
cominj;  to  an  (Mid  in  May,  th(>  monsoon  rainfall  of  China  is  begin- 
nin<r.  ( 'hina  gets  its  rain  in  the  warm  season  when  it  is  most  needed, 
"^i'hat  is  why  tiie  po])nlation  is  so  dense.  Since  the  rains  fall  on  moun- 
tains and  plains  alike.  ;ill  tlie  land  that  is  not  too  steep  can  be  culti- 
vated. There  is  no  loom  for  roads  or  for  cattle,  and  the  whole  coun- 
try is  a  vas<^  patchwoi-k  of  gard(Mis.  "Wheat  and  l)arle3'  thrive  best 
ill  the  north;  mill(>t,  corn,  beans,  and  root  crops  like  beets  and  turnips 
grow  exccllentl}^  everywhere;  while  rice  flourishes  in  the  south. 
Millet  and  rice  arc  the  staple  foods  in  such  a  climate.  They  j'ield 
enoi'moiis  returns  under  intensive  cultivation.  This  type  of  agri- 
culture is  highly  characteristic  of  monsoon  regions  and  is  another 
reason  why  they  are  able  to  support  so  larg(^  a  ]oo])ulatiGn. 

Why  Famines  Occur  in  Regions  of  Seasonal  Rainfall. — In  one 
resi)ect  subtroi^ical  and  monsoon  countries  arc  alike.  Both  are 
l)articularly  liable  to  famines.  To  begin  with  monsoon  countries, 
famines  are  worst  in  ( 'hina  and  in  India.  Long  ago  in  the  years  1344 
and  1345  India  exp(M'ienc(Hl  such  a  tcn-rible  famine  that  even  the 
Mogul  emperor  is  reported  to  have  been  unable  to  obtain  sufficient 
food  for  his  huge  household.  As  recently  as  1877  fiv(^  million  people 
are  said  to  hav(^  perished  from  hunger  in  India,  and  almost  ten  million 
in  northern  China,  while  in  every  recent  decade  millions  of  people 
hav^e  suffered.  In  both  countries  the  reason  for  tlu^  famines  is  the 
same.  Since  practically  all  the  people  are  closely  d(>]KMi(lent  upon 
agriculture,  the  prospcM'ity  of  ihv  whole  countiy  depends  ujwn  a  short 
season  of  abinidaiit  r;iiii  in  summer,  l^veiy  few  yeai's  the  rains  are 
either  scanty  oi'  come  so  late  that  the  crops  camiot  matures  Ix^foi'c  the 
end  of  the  growing  season.  Sonu'tijnes  the  delayed  I'ains  pour  down 
in  such  a  deluge  that  tli('>-  flood  the.  ric(>  fields  too  deeply  and  destroy 
the  prosi)ects  of  those  seemingly  fortunate  ones  who  have  l)(>en  able 
to  start  their  crops  by  jneans  of  ii-rigation.  l']lsewhere  the  heaiy 
rains  gully  the  slopes  and  cai'iy  away  the  precious  soil  thai  should 
raise  the  ci'ops  of  fiitui'e  years.  Disasters  by  floochng  are  most  severe 
in  China,  while  the  failure  of  the  rains  has  probably  produced  the 
worst  effects  in  India. 

Subtropical  countries  occasionally  suffer  fi-om  famines  w^hich 
would  1)(^  as  bad  as  those  of  China  and  India  if  the  ])()])ulation  were 
equally  dense.     Sj'ria,  for  example,  has  lost  its  peoi:)le  1)\'  the  hundred 


LIFE   IN   SUBTROPICAL  AND   MONSOON   REGIONS 


299 


thousand  on  account  of  drought.  Its  famines  are  caused  either  by 
the  failure  of  the  rains  to  begin  at  the  proper  time  in  the  fall,  or  to 
continue  late  enough  in  the  spring. 

Such  famines  are  one  of  the  unportant  reasons  why  most  monsoon 
and  subtropical  regions  are  backward.  As  equatorial  regions  are 
held  back  by  excess  of  rain,  so  these  regions  suffer  from  insufficient 
rain.  A  drought  of  a  single  month  at  the  critical  time  is  enough  to 
cause  dire  distress.  For  generations  the  people  have  suffered  such 
disasters,  and  this  has  helped  to  make  them  hopeless  and  therefore 
inefficient.  One  of  the  most  interesting  questions  of  the  future  will 
be  to  sec  liow  fully  the  Zionists  in  Palestine  with  the  advantages  of 


CouTtesv  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  AgHcuUvre. 

Fig.  95.— World  Produftion  of  Rice,  1920. 


good  government,  modern  methods  and  abundant  capital  can  over- 
come the  handicaps  which  have  hitherto  retarded  most  subtropical 
countries. 

Mediterranean  Subtropical  Regions. — The  most  important  of  sub- 
tropical countries  do  not  sulfei'  from  famine  as  do  those  of  Asia,  for 
the}^  arc  located  in  Euroi)e  and  have  a  better  rainfall  than  the  rest. 
They  are  Italy,  Spain,  and  Greece.  With  them  may  be  grouped  the 
countries  of  North  Africa  that  border  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Since 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  really  form  one  great  land  mass  penetrated 
by  such  gulfs  as  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas,  this  whole  group  of 
countries  actuall}^  lies  in  a  position  corresponding  to  that  of  California. 
Thty  are  so  important  that  tlie  term  "Mediterranean  climate"  is 
often  used  instead  of  "subtropical  climate."  They  contain  not  far 
from  a  liuudrccl  inillioii   p(H)ple,  which  is  four  times  as  ni;ui>'  as  the 


300 


MAX'S  KKLATIOX   '1"()  VKCKTATION    AM)   ANIMALS 


subtropical  regions  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  but  less  than  a  c}uarter  as 
many  as  the  monsoon  rep;ions  of  Asia. 

On  the  whole  the  Mediterranean  countries  are  more  advanced 
than  the  Aleppo  jirovince  which  we  have  used  as  a  type.  Even  Italy, 
the  most  profi;ressive,  however,  is  Ijehind  California.  All  alike  are 
notable  for  their  extensive  irrigation,  and  for  their  great  crops  of  wheat, 
barley,  and  fruit.  Yet  there  are  great  differences  mnong  them.  For 
example,  in  Turkey  and  Morocco  most  of  the  farmers  use  cnule  wooden 
plows  tipped  with  a  bit  of  iron;  they  thresh  the  grain  under  the  feet 
of  oxen;  and  winnow  it  by  throwing  it  into  the  wind.  In  Greece  and 
Tripoli  such  plows  are  also  used,  but  nmch  less  commonly.     The 


[^  Courtesy  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Fig.  9G. — World  Distribution  of  Sliocj). 


threshing  floors  are  often  of  stone;  a  roller  or  sledge  with  short  teeth 
like  a  harrow  is  used  for  threshing,  and  a  hand  machine  for  winnowing. 
In  Spain  wooden  plows  are  found  in  out-of-the-way  regions,  but  a  good 
many  modern  steel  ones  are  ijnj)orted  together  with  some  threshing 
machiner}'.  In  Italy  the  island  of  Sicily  is  as  backward  as  an}'  part 
of  Spain,  but  farther  north  almost  everyone  uses  modern  implements. 
althougii  generally  of  a  simple  type. 

The  North  American  Subtropical  Region:  The  Advantages  of 
California.  -  Although  the  soutlu'rn  half  of  California  has  a  tj'pical 
sul'jtropical  cHiiiate,  it  is  moni  favored  than  even  the  best  of  the  corr(>- 
epondiiig  ()lil  W'oild  regions.  The  chief  reason  for  tliis  dilTerence  is 
that  ah  hough  the  winters  have  about  the  same  temjjerature,  the 
California  summers  are  not  nearly  so  hot  as  those  of  the    Mediter- 


LIFE   IN   SUBTROPICAL  AND   IVIOXSOON   REGIONS         301 


•5 


o   .a 
.3   ^ 


3    t 


fi. 


302         MANS    HKI-ATION    TO    \  llCi:'!' A'n(  )N    AM)    ANIMALS 

ranonn  roplonp.  Tlianks  to  the  prpsoncc  of  the  cool  Pacific  Ocean  the 
suinnuT  tciniH'iaturc  at  Los  Angeles  averages  about  11°  F.  cooler 
than  at  Beirut,  which  li(\s  in  the  same  latitude  and  is  directly  ui)on  the 
coast  instead  of  twenty  miles  inland.  Similar  diffenMices  picvail 
throughout  the  coastal  regions.  Hence  California  has  a  gi'eat  adxaii- 
tage,  for  the  eneigj'  of  the  people  is  not  sapped  by  extieme  heat, 
and  the  gi-ound  does  not  become  parched  so  rapidly  through  rapid 
evaporation.  Aiiolhci-  advantage  of  California  is  that  its  mountains 
are  nuicli  higher  than  those  of  Alejipo  and  Syria,  and  therefore  furnish 
much  laiger  supplies  of  water  for  irrigation. 

Subtropical  Farming  in  California. — (1)  The  Pastoral  Stage. — 
Agriculture  is  the  great  industry  of  California.  The  products  of 
th(>  farm  are  worth  three  times  as  much  as  those  of  all  the  mines, 
oil  wells,  and  quarries.  Even  the  manufacturing  intlustries  consist 
largely  of  the  preparation  of  farm  jtroducts. 

The  agi'icultiu'e  of  California  has  passed  through  three  stages  in 
which  gi-ass,  grain,  and  fruit  have  been  successively  the  most  impor- 
tant forms  of  vegetation.  The  first  white  settlei-s  were  Spaniards  from 
Mexico.  They  depended  solely  on  gi-ass,  for  they  raised  cattle  in 
enormous  numbei-s.  The  animals  thrived  on  the  broad  plains,  for 
the  thick  gi'een  grass  which  is  so  lovely  in  the  spring  when  it  is  span- 
gled with  bright  flowers,  is  equally  nutritious  when  it  becomes  dry 
and  brown  in  the  sunmier.  Up  to  1848  hides  and  tallow  were  almost 
the  sole  Californian  products.  So  eager  were  the  Spaniards  to  make 
room  for  more  cattle  that  they  Idlled  large  numbere  of  hoi-ses.  A 
live  horse  was  no  more  valuable  than  his  hide. 

The  cUscovery  of  gold  in  1848  and  the  consequent  increase  in 
population  checked  the  cattle  industry,  for  l)read  as  well  as  meat 
was  \\anted  Ijy  the  new  settlei-s.  In  1802-04  a  fearful  drought,  such 
as  sometimes  comes  to  subtropical  countries,  gave  a  still  gi-eater 
check,  for  it  destroj'cd  thousands  of  cattle.  Then  sheep-raising 
a.ssumed  gi-eat  hnportance  imtil  tlu^  flocks  threatened  destruction  l)oth 
to  the  forests  and  to  the  gi-asslands  where  the  sheep  nibbled  off  the 
seedlings  and  grasses  to  llio  very  roots.  In  the  drier  parts  of  Cal- 
ifornia and  among  the  jnoiinlains  cattle  and  sheep  are  still  the  main- 
stay of  many  of  the  people,  but  elsewhere  they  are  much  less  iiiii)or- 
tant  than  in  better  watered  States  like  Wisconsin. 

(2)  The  Whcdt-raisiiKj  Stage. — After  the  discovery  ot  gold,  a 
second  stage  of  agi'iculture  began  in  California.  Wheat  became  the 
staple  cro]),  just  as  in  the  subtroi)ical  regions  of  Turkey.  The  size 
of  the  ranches  accordingly  decreased,  while  the  population  increased. 
Wheat-raising,  to  be  sure,  reciuires  large  farms,  but  not  nearly  so  large 
as  does  cattle  raising.     In   ]sr)()  the  averajje  ranch  contained  about 


LIFE  IN  SUBTROPICAL  AND   MONSOON  REGIONS         303 

4500  acres,  and  some  comprised  several  hundred  tlioiisand  acres.  Ten 
years  later  the  average  farm  was  only  one-tenth  as  large.  Now  the 
size  has  fallen  to  about  300  acres  and  is  still  declining  rapidly.  Never- 
theless some  farms  are  still  so  enormous  that  in  the  morning  ten  or 
twenty  plows  start  from  the  barns  and  take  all  day  to  make  a  complete 
trip  across  the  field  and  back. 

The  level  nature  of  the  great  interior  vallej^  and  the  size  of  the 
wheat  farms  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  remarkable  machinery. 
Great  gangplows  drawn  by  steam  engines  or  by  twenty  or  thirty 
horses  plow  a  dozen  or  more  fm-rows  at  a  tune.  E(iually  wonderful 
harvesting  machines  are  used.  Drawn  by  twenty-five  or  thirty 
horses  or  propelled  by  gasoline  engines  they  cut,  thresh,  and  sack 
the  standing  gi-ain  in  one  operation  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  a  min- 
ute. Such  machinery  can  he  used  only  in  regions  where  the  harvest- 
ing season  is  dry  and  sunny  as  in  subtropical  California,  for  only  the 
thoroughly  dry  kernels  can  be  threshed  while  the  grain  is  being  cut. 
One  man's  work  with  modern  machinery  in  California  harvests  as 
much  grain  as  the  work  of  twenty  or  thirty  in  Turkey.  Since  1880 
when  California  harvested  54,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  the  production 
has  fallen  off,  but  this  is  partially  compensated  by  a  great  amount  of 
barle}'.  INIuch  land  which  cannot  be  irrigated  will  always  be  better 
for  grain  than  for  anything  else. 

(3)  The  Fruit-raising  Stage. — So  long  as  California  devoted  itself 
largely  to  raising  cattle  and  cereals  the  chief  advantage  of  its  farmere 
over  those  of  Turkey  lay  in  greater  energy  and  skill.  During  the 
last  forty  years,  however,  the  State  has  reaped  another  great  adA'an- 
tage  from  the  almndance  of  the  water  in  its  mountains.  To-day 
California  depends  for  a  large  part  of  its  wealth  upon  irrigation. 
The  irrigated  farms  are  generally  of  small  size  and  are  devoted  chiefly 
to  fruit,  with  some  vegetables.  With  the  possible  exception  of  parts 
of  Italy  and  Spain  there  is  no  part  of  the  world  where  fruit  is  more 
abundant.  The  beautiful  plum  orchards  of  such  places  as  Santa 
Clara  County  furnish  more  prunes  than  any  similar  areas  in  the 
world.  Equally  remarkable  are  the  hundreds  of  square  jniles  of 
gi-een  vineyards  in  Fresno  Count}'  and  elsewhere.  The  California 
grape  is  known  everyw^here,  and  is  converted  into  famous  raisins,  and 
grape  juice.  A  still  more  wonderful  scene  is  the  orange  groves  of  the 
south,  especially  in  the  valley  from  San  Bernardino  to  Los  Angeles. 
Literally  millions  of  trees  with  Iheir  ])()lished  leaves  and  synunetrical 
round  shape  are  so  loaded  with  yellow  oranges  that  one  scarcely  can 
believe  them  to  be  natural.  For  the  high  (juality  and  great  abun- 
dance of  its  fruit  California  is  indebted  not  only  to  irrigation,  but  to 
the  drj'  sunny  weather  in   the    summer  and  fall.     TIow  iiu])()rtaiit 


304        MANS   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

this  is  may  bo  jiulp;(Hl  from  a  comparison  with  I'lorithi.  AUhougli  that 
State  raises  a  third  as  many  oranges  as  C'ahfornia  and  a  far  hirger 
supply  of  grape  fruit,  it  raises  less  than  1  per  cent  as  many  gi'apes, 
apples,  pears,  ])eaches,  plums,  and  other  orchard  fruits. 

The  necessity  of  exercising  great  care  in  order  to  sell  their  fruit 
in  the  distant  markets  of  the  East  has  led  the  fruit  growers  to  com- 
bine their  interests.  Practically  every  community  has  a  co-operative 
packing  house  where  fruit  is  cleaned,  sorted,  and  packed,  and  from 
which  it  is  shipped  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  market.  In  the  hamls 
of  a  people  who  are  full  of  ambition  and  energy  the  great  natural 
resources  of  California  together  with  such  co-operative  enterprises 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Fig.  98.— World  Production  of  Cotton. 


have  made  the  State  the  most  prosperous  and  ])i-()grcssive  of  all  sub- 
tropical  countries. 

The  Monsoon  Region  of  America. — Florida  and  the  neighl)or- 
irig  coastal  districts  Ijclong  to  the  monsoon  type,  since  the  prevailing 
winds  blow  from  the  northwest  in  winter  and  the  southeast  in  summer. 
No  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  however,  shows  a  rainfall  of  the  purely 
monsoon  type,  for  cyclonic  storms  supplement  the  monsoon  rains.  In 
summer  the  rainfall  of  Florida,  as  appears  in  Fig.  83,  is  of  the  typical 
monsoon  character.  By  November  it  has  fallen  off  so  that  it  seems 
to  promise  a  dry  season,  l)ut  cyclonic  storms  cause  the  rain  to 
increase  a^ain.  Except  for  the  heavy  frosts  which  somethnes 
follow  in  their  wake,  and  the  consfHiuciit  (jamage  to  the  orange 
groves,  these  storms  give  the  southeastern  United  States  a  great 


.  LIFE  IN  SUBTROPICAL  A\D  MONSOON  REGIONS 


305 


only    (1 
te  crop 


ocs    the 
failures 


advantage   over  Southern  China  and  India.     Not 

occurrence  of  rain  at  all  seasons  i)revent  such  coniple 

as  afflict    the  Asiatic 

monsoon  countries,  but 

the    frequent    storms 

bring     stimulating 

changes    which     help 

to    make    the    people 

energetic. 

Farther  north,  as 
appears  in  Fig.  83, 
the  rainfall  of  the 
Carolinas  shows  only 
a  little  monsoon  in- 
fluence, and  is  almost 
as  abundant  in  winter 
as  in  sununer. 

Why  the  American 
Monsoon  Region  Has 
Fewer  People  than 
the  Asiatic  Regions. 
— Since  Florida  and 
the  neighboring  States 
combine  the  advan- 
tages of  abundant 
monsoon  rain  in  sum- 
mer and  cyclonic 
rain  the  rest  of  the 
year,  we  should  expect 
a  dense  population. 
Florida,  however,  had 
only  18  inhabitants 
per  square  mile,  in 
1920,  and  cvcnGeorgia 
only  about  50,  while 
the  monsoon  regions 
of  China  and  India 
had  about  500.  There 
are  three  main  reasons 
ness. 

(1)  In  Florida  the  relative  s])arsity  of  po]uilation  is  due  partly  to 
the  abundance  of  swanii)s  like  the  Everglades.  A  more  imj^ortant 
factor,  both  in  Florida  and  the  neighboring  States,  is  that  the  coun- 


for  this,   (1)   soil,  (2)  climate,  and  (3)  new- 


o()() 


MAN'S    KKLAIION     lO    \  i:(  li;'!' A  TloX    AND    ANIMALS 


tiy  consists  larst'l}'  of  siuuly  soil  wliicli  has  iccciilly  omergcd  from  the 
s(';i  and  wliicli  is  in  constant  nccil  of  ahiuulant  fertilizers.  Moreover, 
in  all  waiJii,  wet  regions  the  soil  does  not  liave  enough  hunuis  l)ecause 
vegetation  decays  so  rapidly.  In  India  and  ('liiiia,  however,  the 
monsoon  regions  witli  the  densest  {)oi)ulation  contain  great  ilelta  lands 
and  luoad  tlood  plains,  where  the  water  and  silt  of  great  rivers  are 
regulai'ly  spread  o\-('r  the  iiclds  and  itiicw  their  t'crlihty. 


v~i 


SPREAD  OF  THE 

MEXICAN  COTTON 

BOLL  WEEVIL 


Fig.   100.— M iteration  of  the  Boll  Weevil, 


(2)  Although  the  monsoon  climate  of  the  South  Atlantic  States 
is  highly  favorable  for  agriculture,  it  has  not  encouraged  immigration. 
The  United  States  was  settled  mainly  by  people  from  the  cool,  stuuu- 
lating  cluuates  of  northwestern  Europe.  Such  jjeojile  can  live  and 
prosper  in  the  Southern  States,  but  as  they  themselves  say,  they  do 
not  have  so  much  energy  as  in  the  North.  This  is  especially  true  if 
they  attempt  to  work  in  the  fields  and  endure  the  sun  and  heat  of 
summer.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  because  of  the  presence  of  a 
colored  laboring  population  in  the  South  and  the  demand  for  labor 
in  the  Norlli,  innnigrants  fi'oiii  iioi'thciii  Mui'ope  \vA\r  iMcrcii'cd 
to  go  to  the  Noi'thern  Slates,  wliicli  up  to  the  present  time  have 
offered  so  much  unoccaipicd  teiritoiy  that  there  was  room  i'oi'  every- 
liody.  This  coiKhtioii  is  rai)idly  changing,  ])ai'tly  because  the  Noi'th 
is  becoming  well  i)oinilatetl,  and  partly  because  immigrants  now  come 
in  large  numl)ers  from  Mediterranean  countries,  whose  people  are 
better  adapted  to  out-of-door  work  in  a  souliieni  climate  than  are  1  he 
English,  ( lei-nians,  Scandinavians,  and  other  noithein  immigiaiits 
of  earlier  days. 

(8)   Till'  chief  reason,  however,  why  the  ])o])ulaf  ion  of  oui'  Soulhei'ii 


LIFE   IX   SUBTROPICAL  AND   MOXS(X)X   REGIONS  307 

States  is  sa  scanty  compared  with  that  of  the  monsoon  areas  of  Asia 
is  that  America  is  still  new,  even  thoiiuh  we  think  the  Atlantic  States 
are  old. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Copy  from  Figs.  78  and  79  the  parts  which  illustrate  the  contrast  between 
subtropical  and  monsoon  regions.  Insert  the  names  of  all  the  places  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Aleppo  and  Shantung.  Add  chief  products;  also  the  important 
steamship  routes  which  connect  these  regions  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  Insert 
blue  arrows  for  prevailing  winds  in  winter  and  red  for  those  prevailing  in  summer. 
On  the  basis  of  the  maps  explain  which  of  these  two  regions  has  the  greater  advan- 
tages. 

2.  Look  up  the  article  on  architecture  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and 
read  the  paragraph  about  the  origin  of  architecture.  Look  up  what  J.  Bruhnes, 
in  his  book  on  "Human  Geography,"  saj-s  about  architecture  as  a  reflection  of 
the  physical  geography  of  the  country.  Apply  this  to  the  facts  stated  in  the  pres- 
ent chapter.  Compare  the  various  parts  of  the  United  States  in  this  respect. 
Give  examples  from  your  own  region,  and  from  any  other  region  with  which 
you  may  be  familiar.     In  each  case  suggest  reasons  for  the  facts  you  state. 

3.  "In  countries  where  communication  is  difficult  sheep  are  profitable  animals 
to  keep."  Examine  the  truth  of  this  statement  when  applied  to  Turkey.  Con- 
sider the  following  factors:  (a)  the  articles  of  trade  obtained  from  sheep;  (b) 
the  conditions  of  transportation;  (c)  the  density  of  population;  {d)  the  conditions 
of  indastry. 

4.  Write  a  descrii^tion  of  the  products  and  industries  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
modeled  on  that  of  the  Aleppo  region  given  in  this  chapter.  Facts  may  be  found 
in  the  Statesman's  Yearbook,  the  encyclopaedia,  books  of  travel,  etc. 

5.  In  the  Bible,  in  the  writings  of  Omar  Kha\'yam,  and  in  other  literature,  find 
metaphores  suggested  by  the  physical  geography  of  the  subtropical  lands  of  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean. 

6.  Read  the  first  chapter  of  Rudyard  Kipling's  "Kim,"  making  a  list  of  all  the 
references  to  food,  clothes,  domestic  animals,  occupations,  habits,  and  houses. 
Discuss  the  extent  to  which  these  show  a  direct  response  to  the  conditions  imposed 
by  physical  geography. 

7.  Make  diagrams  showing  the  percentages  of  the  world's  production  of  wheat, 
barley,  and  rice  raised  by  India,  Spain,  and  Italy,  respectively:  For  each  of  the 
three  graphs  write  a  statement  of  how  it  is  explain(>d  by  the  i)hysical  geographj'  of 
the  country. 

8.  Some  children  from  central  China  who  visited  Pennsylvania  were  never 
tired  of  looking  at  the  cart  horses  and  marveling  at  their  size  and  strength.  They 
were  also  astonished  at  the  number  of  wild  blackberries  to  be  had  for  nothing, 
and  at  the  width  of  the  country  roads,  the  frequency  of  village  greens,  and  the 
recklessness  with  which  people  burned  wood.  Explain  the  geographic  basis  of 
all  their  feelings. 

9.  A.  Examine  the  maps  of  products  in  this  book  (Figs.  .53-58,  (iO-Ol,  04-65, 

91,  95-90,  98-99,  104-5,  108  and  in  the  Geograpliy  of  the  \\()rkrs  Agri- 
culture (published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture).  Make 
a  list  of  all  the  products  for  which  world  maps  are  available,  and  of 
the  subtropical  and  monsoon  countries  in  which  they  arc  produced. 
Classify  the  products  as  follows:     (1)  those  produced  abundantly; 


308      MANS  i{i;LA'ri()N  to  vi:(;i:iAri()N  and  animals 

in  (a)  sul)t Topical  countries;  (/')  monsoon  countrios;  (2)  those  pro- 
ducpcl  moderately  in   («)  subtropical  and   (^)   monsoon  regions;   (3) 
those  produced  either  not  at  all  in  such  countries  or  only  in  small 
quantities. 
B.  For  each  of  the  five  classes  in  your  list,  write  a  statement  of  the  geo- 
graphical conditions  which  determine  the  extent  to  which  the  various 
products  are  jjroduced.     Fig.  1  will  help  you.     Remember  that  geo- 
graphic conditions  which  alTect  transportation,  health,  etc.,  are  as 
important  as  those  which  directly  affect  the  product. 
10.  I^ok  up  the  cotton-boll  weevil.     Study  Figs.  99  and  100,  and  describe 
the  progress  of  the  weevil.     Where  did  it  ajiparently  come  from?     Try  to  find 
from  the  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Dei)artment  of  Agriculture  how  far  it  has  now 
spread. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
MODES  OF  LIFE  IN  DESERTS  AND  POLAR  REGIONS 

The  great  deserts  that  border  the  torrid  zone  comprise  the 
intensely  hot  and  dry  regions  of  Arabia,  the  Sahara,  the  Kalahari, 
central  Australia,  northern  Mexico,  and  northern  Chile.  These 
regions  are  all  alike  in  having  the  following  characteristics:  (1) 
slight  rainfall;  (2)  scanty  vegetation;  (3)  practically  no  agriculture; 
(4)  dependence  of  man  on  animals;  (5)  a  sparse  nomadic  popula- 
tion; and  (6)  low  civilization. 

If  we  examine  the  whole  world  we  find  that  certain  other  regions 
also  have  these  six  qualities.  These  other  regions  are  of  two  types, 
(1)  continental  deserts  and  (2)  polar  regions.  The  continental 
deserts  are  in  most  respects  like  the  trade  wind  deserts.  The  chief 
difference  is  that  although  most  of  the  year  they  are  hot  like  the  trade 
wind  deserts,  they  have  a  period  when  they  are  cold  like  the  polar 
deserts.  Nevada  and  Utah  are  mild  examples  of  this  kind,  while  the 
deserts  of  Central  Asia  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  borders  of  Man- 
churia are  extreme  examples.  The  polar  regions,  which  have  ihc 
six  characteristics  named  above,  are  not  deserts  in  the  ordinary  sense 
for  they  are  covered  with  snow  much  of  the  time  and  the  ground  is 
moist  when  this  melts.  Yet  in  their  effect  on  man  the  cold  regions  of 
(Greenland,  the  northern  parts  of  North  America  and  Asia,  the  vast 
continent  of  Antarctica,  and  many  limited  regions  at  high  altitudes 
like  Tibet  are  much  like  deserts.  Hence  in  this  chapter  we  shall  treat 
these  cold  wet  polar  deserts  as  well  as  the  ordinary  hot  dry  deserts. 

Sparsity  of  Desert  Population. — The  sparsity  of  desert  population 
is  astonishing.  For  instance,  the  desert  part  of  Arabia,  omitting 
the  fairly  well-watered  regions  of  Yemen  and  Oman,  is  as  large  as 
the  United  States  cast  of  the  IVIississippi  River.  Yet  its  population 
is  probably  less  than  2,000,000,  while  the  corresponding  portion  of  the 
United  States  has  70,000,000.  In  southern  Arabia  over  300,000 
square  miles  of  absolute  desert  have  never  been  explored  and  probably 
contain  no  inhabitants.  This  area  equals  Germany  and  Italy, 
combined,  which  contain  100,000,000  peojile.  The  great  Sahara, 
which  is  as  large  as  the  Unitcil  States,  probably  has  less  people  than 
the  Arabian  desert,  while  the  Australian  desert  has  least  of  all  among 
the  diy  deserts.     In  our  own  countiy,  Nevada  has  only  one  pei-son  for 

309 


310        MANS    HKI.ATIOX    TO    VllCKTATloX    AND   ANIMALS 

each  sqiuuc  iniU\  and  most  of  these  are  gathered  in  oases  such  as  Reno 
at  the  eastern  base  of  tlie  Sierras.  Contrast  this  witli  Massachusetts, 
which  has  450  peoi)le  per  square  mile. 

Cold  deserts  have  even  U'ww  pcojilc  than  dry  deserts.  For  in- 
stance, if  we  omit  the  Labrador  coast  and  the  Yukon  niinin<i-  (Ustriet, 
the  nortliern  jirovinces  of  Canada,  with  an  area  of  2,000.000  scjuare 
miles  have  only  about  20,000  inhabitants.  This  part  of  Canada  is 
as  larne  as  all  Europe  aside  from  Russia,  but  it  has  only  one  inhabitant 
where  the  lMn-()])ean  countries  have  10,500.  Antarctica,  the  jireatest 
of  all  deserts,  has  not  a  single  inhabitant. 

The  Effect  of  Scanty  Rainfall  on  the  Appearance  of  Dry  Deserts. 
— L)r\'  deserts  ])i-esent  a  ijccuhar  a])])earance.  Parts  consist  of  inoun- 
tams  and  ])arts  of  i)hiins.  Amoiia;  iiiouiitaiiH  the  bare  rock  every- 
where sticks  out,  often  ])ainting  the  laiidscaiic^  with  weird  coloi-s. 

Sometimes  it  is  shattered  and  ])roken  l)y  the  action  of  frost  and 
sun.  Elsewhere  it  is  roughly  pitted  l)y  the  wind.  Only  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  mountains  is  the  cUmate  moist  enough  so  that 
there  is  a  fairly  deep  cover  of  soil  held  in  place  by  vegetation. 

The  weathered  rock  and  soil  from  the  mountains  are  washed  down 
to  the  lowlands  by  the  occasional  violent  rains  which  fall  even  in 
deserts.  At  the  base  of  the  mountains  the  wet  weather  torrents 
deposit  their  load  in  gi-eat  tracts  of  sloping  gravel  hke  enormous 
l:K?aches  from  1  to  40  miles  wide.  Close  to  the  mountains  the  gravel 
consists  of  large  nnigh  fragments,  but  farther  away  the  materials  be- 
come more  ])ebl)ly  and  sandy,  and  finally  they  merge  into  plains  of 
sand  and  clay.  Often  the  sand  is  heaiied  into  dunes  while  the  clay 
is  scoured  l)y  tlie  wind  into  fantastic  ])illars  and  tables. 

If  the  mountains  furnish  water  enouuli  tlie  lowest  part  of  each 
plain  contains  either  a  salt  lake  or  else  a  "dry  lake,"  known  as  a  ])laya. 
Such  a  lake  at  most  times  jn-esents  the  appearance  of  an  al)solutely 
flat  expense  of  smooth  clay,  but  after  one  of  the  occasional  rains  it  is 
transformed  into  a  laki^  in  which  the  water  may  l)e  only  a  few  inches 
deep. 

In  the  well-populated  parts  of  tlu>  world  vegetation  is  so  abundant 
that  it  hides  the  soil.  In  deserts,  however,  the  vc^getation  is  so  scanty 
that  the  traveler  is  constantly  reminded  of  the  rock  and  soil.  W'iiat 
little  vegetation  he  sees,  however,  is  ])eculiarly  interesting  l)ecause 
of  th(>  strange  forms  which  it  has  ac(iuired  in  its  attempt  to  meet  the 
conditions  of  drought. 

Sandy  Deserts.— Although  sandy  deserts  do  not  occupy  any 
larger  area  t  han  t  hose  of  bare  rock,  gravel,  and  clay,  they  present  much 
the  most  interesting  a])])earanc(>,  largely  because  of  the  ])resence  of 
dunes  of  every  size.     That  is  why  the  most  familiar  ])ictures  of  deserts 


MODES  OF   LIFE   IN   DESERTS  AND   POLAR  REGIONS     311 

show  sandy  dunes.  In  the  Takla  Makan  desert  of  western  Cliina 
milHons  of  sand  (hnies  of  many  tones  of  yellow,  brown,  and  ])ink,  look 
like  the  waves  of  a  huge  dry  sea  600  miles  long.  Only  the  boldest 
explorei-s  dare  launch  their  caravans  on  such  a  waterless  sea.  The 
wind  piles  the  dunes  up  to  a  height  of  500  feet  and  thus  causes  them 
to  be  an  almost  uupassable  ])arri(n'.  Ev(ui  when  the  dunes  are  small 
the  feet  of  men  and  annuals  sink  into  the  imstable  sand  and  slip  and 
sUde  so  that  progress  is  extremely  slow.  Often  it  is  imjiossible  to 
cUmb  the  steep  leeward  slope  of  a  dune,  although  the  gentler  wind- 
ward slope  may  he  comparatively  easy.  When  \dolent  winds  blow 
the  sharji  sand  with  cutting  force  into  the  traA'eler's  face  there  is 
nothing  to  do  but  turn  one's  l)ack  to  the  wind  and  try  to  escape  suffo- 
cation. The  camel  has  become  so  well  adapted  to  this  condition  of 
desert  life  that  he  is  able  to  close  his  nostrils  and  only  open  them  at 
long  intervals  for  a  quick  breath. 

How  Loess  is  Formed  and  Used. — "\^^len  the  wind  blows  over  the 
desert  it  not  only  heaps  the  particles  of  sand  into  dunes,  but  carries 
away  the  finer  dust  and  deposits  it  in  the  form  of  loess.  From  the 
Takla  Makan  and  Gobi  deserts  the  dust  is  sometim(>s  ])lown  in  such 
quantities  that  60  or  100  miles  to  the  southeast  it  makes  the  air  so 
hazy  that  the  sun  is  hidden  even  at  noon.  Beyond  the  limits  of 
the  deserts  it  falls  as  a  fine  yellow  powder.  It  even  sifts  into  the 
tightl}'-  closed  houses  and  makes  it  difficult  to  write  b}^  coating  the 
paper  and  clogging  the  pen.  In  northwestern  Chuia  this  desert  dust 
has  accmnulated  in  some  places  to  a  dcj^th  of  scores  of  hundreds  of 
feet  over  an  area  larger  than  France.  It  is  very  fertile  provided  it  is 
well  supplied  with  wat(n-.  "Where  there  is  no  vc\g(>tation  to  hold  it, 
however,  it  is  so  light  that  it  is  quickly  blowii  away.  Along  the 
roads  in  the  loess  country  th(^  feet  of  horses  stir  u{)  the  dust  and  then 
it  is  blown  away  so  that  the  roads  become  (hop  trenches.  In  sjiite 
of  its  Ughtness  the  loess  does  not  easily  crumhle.  Its  thick,  fine- 
gi-ained  masses  can  be  cut  likc^  cheese  and  it  sticks  togetlun-  so  w(>ll  that 
houses  can  be  excavated  in  it.  Near  the  borders  of  the  deserts  in 
northwestern  China  many  peasants  live  in  such  houses  dug  in  the 
walls  of  the  sunken  sti'ccts. 

Why  Desert  Lakes  are  Salt. — ^Aside  from  the  dunes  and  the  vege- 
tation one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  desert  is  the  lakes. 
Occasionally  they  arc  loeautiful,  but  oftener  they  have  flat  nuiddy 
shores  crusted  with  white  crystals  and  looking  something  like  .tide 
flats  and  smelling  far  woi-se.  Desert  lakes  generally  have  no  out- 
lets and  henc(>  are  salty.  This  is  because  l)()th  in  (U^serts  and  else- 
wh(M-e  every  stream  contains  a  little  dissolved  salt,  although  ortlinarily 
this  <  aiuiot  be  detected  except  by  chemical  analysis.     In  deserts, 


312        MANS   KELATIUX   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

howovor,  ova]")oration  removes  the  water  wltlioiit  ivmoving  the  salt, 
which  in  orthnary  lak(>s  escapes  throu^li  tlie  outlet.  Hence  all  tiie 
salt  that  is  brou^l't  in  by  the  streams  remains  in  the  lake,  and  finally 
forms  a  stronji  brine  s(j  heavy  that  the  bather  finds  himself  lifted 
from  the  l>ottom  when  he  walks  out  as  far  as  his  armpits.  Woe  be- 
tide him,  in  the  Dead  Sea,  for  example,  if  he  gets  the  stinging  brine 
into  his  eyes  or  nose.  The  Dead  Sea  is  well  named  for  there  is  prac- 
tic^dly  no  life  in  it.  Many  great  salt  lakes  have  diied  up,  leaving 
their  salt  in  solid  layers,  scores  or  hundreds  of  feet  thick.  In  Central 
Asia  such  salt  dcijosits  coxci-  thousands  of  s(juare  miles. 

Types  of  Desert  Vegetation. — The  vegetation  of  deserts  varies 
from  region  to  region  as  much  as  does  that  of  the  forests.  For  ex- 
anijile,  on  the  l)ordei-s  of  the  Transcaspian  Desert  lieyond  the  Caspian 
8ea  and  in  i)arts  of  the  Arabian  Desert  the  whole  country  seems  to 
consist  of  nothing  but  Imre  sand  dunes.  Then  comes  a  hea\y  rain, 
and  within  a  w(H>k  or  two  the  sand  is  covered  with  a  short,  sweet 
growth  of  grass  which  makes  it  look  as  fertile  as  the  prairie.  Y(>t  in  a 
few  more  weeks  the  grass  has  ripened  its  seeds  and  dried  u]i,  and  soon 
the  sand  is  blowing  freely  as  before.  Farther  out  in  the  desert  grass 
almost  n(n-er  ap])ears,  but  the  sand  is  dotted  here  and  there  with 
tough  little  bushes  thr(>e  or  four  feet  high  which  seem  leafless  until 
one  notices  the  little  scales  pressed  tight  against  the  stems.  In  some 
of  the  greatest  deserts  where  sand  dunes  rise  to  heights  of  several 
hundred  feet  the  space  between  the  dunes  is  gouged  out  by  tlie  wind 
to  such  a  depth  that  the  water  tabk;  is  almost  reached.  Here  one 
sometimes  finds  beds  of  reeds  or  patches  of  the  feathery  shrub  called 
tamarisk.  As  the  dunes  slowly  advance  they  may  kill  sucii  ]ilants, 
but  sometimes,  if  the  dunes  are  small,  the  plants  may  shoot  u])  fast 
enough  to  kce]!  their  heads  above  the  sand.  Occasionally,  aUvr  the 
dimes  haAcgonc  on  and  again  left  them  uncovered  one  finds  reeds  and 
bushes  curiously  elongated  as  if  on  stilts. 

In  the  gravel  deserts  the  vegetation  is  even  less  abundant  tlian  in 
the  sand,  for  there  are  few  favored  spots  and  even  when  rain  comes 
the  ])lants  have  hard  work  to  grow.  In  some  of  the  vaster  deserts  of 
Persia  and  Central  Asia  the  gi-avel  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
foinis  expanses  like  huge  beaches  10,  20,  or  even  40  miles  wide.  Here 
the  gravel  is  ccMuented  together  by  a  slightly  salty  calcareous  de])osit. 
Soinctimes  after  this  has  been  soaked  by  one  of  the  occasional  rains  it 
s])lits  iiili)  incgular  ])(ilyg()ns  .')  to  12  feet  in  diameter,  and  cracks 
several  inches  dee])  are  foi'ined  along  the  edges.  In  these  the  wind 
deposits  sand,  and  latei'  tiny  plants  take  root  so  that  sometimes  the 
polygons  are  oiilliiiecl  in  green,  like  lit  tie  gai'dens  where  the  ])laiits 
occupy  the  ]);itlis  instead   of  the   beds.      In  deserts  where  gl"avel  i^ 


MODES  OF  LIFE   IX   DESERTS   AND   POLAR  REGIONS     313 

mixed  with  soil  an  iiiuisiial  rain  may  sometimes  cause  the  desert  to 
blossom  as  the  rose.  One  would  have  to  travel  far  to  find  any  scene 
more  beautiful  than  the  IMohave  Desert  of  California  at  such  a  time 
when  it  is  carpeted  for  miles  with  the  loveliest  flowei-s,  white,  yellow, 
orange,  and  blue. 

In  deserts  like  most  of  those  in  the  United  States  where  some 
rain  falls  in  both  summer  and  Avinter,  l^ushy  vegetation  is  the  pre- 
dominant t>T)e.  The  newcomer  who  sees  the  abundant  sage  brush  of 
Utah  and  Nevada,  or  the  larger  greasewood  and  mesquitc  of  Arizona 
with  the  accompanying  cactus  and  the  gi'asses  that  spring  up  after 
rains,  can  scarcely  believe  that  in  a  region  which  looks  so  fertile 
agriculture  is  impossible.  INIany  a  tenderfoot  from  the  East  has 
thought  to  his  cost  that  the  westerners  were  l>Ting  y\\\cn  they  told  him 
not  to  take  up  land  of  that  kind.  He  found,  however,  that  the  types 
of  vegetation  which  grow  in  the  desert  can  subsist  on  an  amovmt  of 
moisture  which  will  not  possibly  support  crops.  That  is  the  gi'eat 
outstanding  feature  of  every  desert. 

Oases. — The  spots  called  oases  are  places  where  desert  vegetation 
gives  place  to  that  of  ^^•ell-watered  regions.  Although  they  are  in 
the  desert,  they  are  not  of  it.  Yet  they  must  be  considered,  since 
thej^  occur  in  every  desert,  and  support  far  more  people  than  the  vast 
surrounding  areas.  Moreover,  the  true  desert  people,  the  nomads, 
have  much  the  same  relation  to  the  oases  that  countrj'  people  have  to 
cities.  The  larger  oases  are  places  where  streams  from  the  mountains 
spread  out  upon  the  desert  plain  and  sen'e  for  irrigation.  The  moun- 
tains and  the  oases  may  be  as  far  apart  as  the  snowy  heights  of  the 
Himalayas  and  the  hot  sunny  delta  of  the  Indus.  The  \\hole  of 
cultivated  Egypt  indeed,  with  its  11,000,000  people,  is  a  gTcat  oasis 
watered  by  the  rains  that  fall  on  the  mountains  of  Central  Africa. 
In  such  oases  crops  like  millet,  wheat,  barley,  grapes,  and  many  other 
fruits  are  raised.  The  houses  are  generally  made  of  sun-dried  bricks 
called  adobe.  Sometimes,  where  there  are  trees  enough,  the  houses 
have  wooden  frames,  but  in  the  oases  of  the  driest  deserts  like  eastern 
Persia  even  the  roofs  are  made  of  adobe  bricks  forming  small  domes. 
In  books  we  hear  much  of  the  beauty  of  such  oases  as  Damascus,  but 
generally  the  descrii)tions  are  exaggerated.  Nevertheless,  when  a 
traveler  on  a  camel,  the  ship  of  the  desert,  comes  to  an  oasis  where  he 
can  rest  and  supply  his  needs  it  seems  very  l>eautiful  to  him  just 
as  any  port  seems  a  haven  of  rest  to  a  storm-toss(Hl  mariner. 

Palm  Oases. — In  the  smaller  oases  of  tlu^  driest,  hottest  deserts 
sucli  as  those  of  Arabia  and  northern  xVfrica,  ]xilm  trees  are  almost  the 
onl}'  kind  of  vegetation.  We  are  apt  to  think  that  this  kind  of  oasis  is 
typical,  but  really  it  is  comparatively  unimportant.     Such  oases  are 


314        MAX'S   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION    AND   ANIMALS 

locatod  whore  littlo  sjmnfrs  Inibblo  out  of  tho  oartli  or  in  dcprossions 
wlu're  tho  p-oiiiul  is  sUfj;htly  moist  and  wolls  can  Ix-  duj?.  Tlio  pahns 
are  of  ton  jilantod  in  pits  5  or  G  foot  doop  whore  the  soil  is  moist. 
At  miifli  gr(>atc>r  dojitlis  -vvator  can  1)0  ol)tainod  in  wolls.  It  is  raised 
by  hand  or  by  camols  drawing  buckets  at  the  end  of  long  ropes  and  is 
conducted  with  gi'oat  care  to  the  pits  where  it  watere  the  trees. 

Why  Desert  People  Follow  the  Nomadic  Mode  of  Life. — Out- 
side the  oases  the  only  thing  uihhi  which  di-sert  ])((>])1("  can  rely  for  a 
livuig  is  animals.  Sheep,  goats,  donkeys,  ami  (^specially  camels  can 
live  on  the  scanty  vegetation  of  almost  all  deserts,  but  they  must 
constantly  be  kept  moving  from  one  pasturage  to  another.  Hen<'e  the 
desert  people  are  nomadic.  Their  success  depends  upon  their  ability 
to  find  for  their  flocks  sufficient  vegetation  and  water.  Accordingly 
it  is  not  siu'prising  that  when  one  meets  a  Bedouin  Arab  in  the  Sj'rian 
desert,  for  example,  he  at  once  asks,  "Has  rain  fallen  anywhere?"  If 
the  traveler  reports  showers  along  his  route,  the  Aral)  hastens  Ixack  to 
camp,  announces  the  good  news  to  his  family  and  gives  orders  to  pre- 
pare to  move.  Next  morning  the  tents  are  taken  down,  the  household 
goods  are  gathered  up  and  with  the  children  are  put  on  the  backs  of 
camels.  In  an  hour  the  trampled  ground  and  the  blackened  stones 
where  the  fire  has  gone  out  are  the  only  signs  of  the  encampment. 

It  must  not  be  tliought  that  the  Arab  rashly  moves  his  camp  with- 
out knowing  where  he  can  get  water.  He  is  famihar  A\ith  all  the  water 
holes,  springs,  and  wells,  and  has  special  places  to  wliich  he  regularly 
migi-atos  providcnl  there  is  gi'ass.  Sometimes,  to  be  sure,  if  tho  rain 
is  especially  abundant  and  the  gi-ass  grows  thick  and  green,  as  occui-s 
at  long  intervals,  he  does  not  need  to  camp  beside  a  source  of  drinking 
water.  The  animals  eat  so  much  green  grass  that  tlu^y  can  get  along 
without  water  and  the  people  make  milk  sene  for  l)ot  h  food  and  diink. 
As  for  washing  it  is  enough  for  the  Aral)  to  rub  his  hamls  in  the  sand. 
In  s])ite  of  tho  fact  that  the  j\Iohamni(>dan  religion  es])ecially  teaclu>s 
cleanliness,  millions  of  Arabs  have  probably  lived  and  died  without 
ever  taking  a  real  bath. 

The  Property  of  Desert  Nomads. — Among  desert  nomads  there  is 
nothing  that  can  really  be  called  wealth.  Some,  to  be  sun\  have 
larger  herds  and  flocks,  better  guns,  and  better  clothing  than  tlu-ir 
comnides,  but  none  live  in  houses  or  have  elaborate  furniture.  If  a 
man  tried  to  have  such  things  he  could  not  reach  fresh  ])astures  and 
new  springs  in  tune  to  keep  his  animals  in  good  condit  ion.  Moreover, 
life  is  so  hard  that  there  is  no  chance  to  accunudate  the  sur])lus  that 
would  buy  these  things.  Among  the  Aral)S,  for  exam])U>,  ])overty  is 
so  ncarlx-  uni\-ei"sal  that  there  are  few  differences  such  as  exist  whore 
some  peo])le  live  iti  great  ])alaces  and  others  in  houses  of  one  or  two 


MODES  OF  LIFE   IN   DESERTS   AND   POLAR   REGIONS     315 

rooms,  and  where  &ome  perform  hard,  ill-paid  manual  labor,  while 
othere  live  in  ease  upon  the  accumulated  wealth  of  their  ancestoi"s. 

The  chief  thing  that  keeps  the  Arabs  poor  is  that  the  rain  may 
fail  and  the  grass  wither  at  any  tune.  Then  the  animals  begin  to 
suffcn-  from  hunger;  the  mother  camels  and  sheep  give  no  milk,  and 
their  colts  and  lambs  begin  to  die.  Soon  the  Arabs  have  neither 
young  anmials  to  exchange  for  rice,  millet,  and  dates  in  the  oases, 
nor  milk  to  keep  themselves  from  stai*\-ation.  So  long  as  anyone  has 
food  he  shares  it  with  his  neighbors,  but  all  alike  suffer  greatly.  They 
dare  not  kill  too  many  anunals  for  then  tlu^y  would  tlestroy  their  sole 
means  of  support. 

How  Poverty  Leads  to  Desert  Raids. — The  hardships  of  the  desert 
cause  the  nomad's  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  to  differ  from  ours.  What 
is  an  Arab  to  do  when  his  camels,  his  sheep,  his  wife,  his  children, 
and  himself  are  all  suffering  the  pang's  of  hunger?  The  only  thing 
that  occui'S  to  him  is  to  plunder.  Hence  he  goes  on  raids.  A  raid  is 
an  interesting  event.  A  group  of  Arabs  are  sitting  on  the  ground  in  a 
circle  at  sunset.  Suddenl}^  one  of  them  rises  and  thrusts  his  spear 
into  the  gi'ound.  'T  am  going  on  a  raid,"  he  saj'^s.  "Who  will  go 
with  me?"  One  by  one  the  othei-s  quietly  but  vigorously  drive  their 
spears  into  the  sand  as  a  sign  that  the}'  too  will  go.  Early  the  next 
morning  a  dozen  or  twenty  keen-eyed  Arabs  ride  off  across  the  desert 
on  their  camels.  A  few  are  leading  horses  for  the  final  swift  dash. 
On  long  raids  only  those  hoi"ses  can  be  used  that  have  been  taught  to 
drink  camels'  milk.  After  riding  one  or  two  hmidred  miles  the 
raiders  discover  a  nomad  camp  which  they  plan  to  plunder.  Waiting 
until  nightfall  the  horsemen  silently  and  swiftly  drive  off  the  camels 
which  are  herded  not  far  from  the  tents.  If  necessary  the  raiders 
shoot  the  camel-keeper,  ])ut  they  tiy  to  avoid  such  extreme  measures, 
for  if  one  member  of  a  family  or  clan  is  killed,  the  rest  are  never  satis- 
fied until  they  take  a  Hfe  for  a  lite. 

How  Raids  Influence  Arab  Character. — We  beUeve  that  a  man 
should  treat  his  neighbors  as  he  would  wish  to  be  treated  himself,  but 
through  thousands  of  years  tlu>  hard  conditions  imposed  by  the  desert 
climate  have  weeded  out  the  Arabs  who  are  not  ready  for  violence. 
To  succeed  in  the  desert  a  man  nuist  be  ready  not  only  to  engage  in 
plundering  expeditions,  l)ut  to  endure  heat,  thii'st,  and  the  weariness 
of  long  rides.  Unfortunately,  however,  he  has  littJe  need  of  steady 
industry.  When  he  comes  home  from  a  raid  or  from  an  exhausting 
hunt  for  stray  animals,  he  is  so  tired  that  he  Ues  down  and  does  noth- 
ing for  days.  If  he  is  al)le  to  summon  up  his  ]-)owei-s  when  his  canu^ls 
are  driven  off  or  his  sheep  have  strayed,  his  laziness  does  little  harm. 
The  ordinaiy  work  of  caring  for  the  animals  is  so  light  that  the  women 


316       MAX'S   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION    AM)   ANIMALS 

and  cliiklron  can  easily  do  it  and  still  havo  ploiity  of  tinio  to  rost. 
Hcnci'  the  Aral)  is  not  only  dishonest  according  to  our  standards,  but 
lazy.  Ill'  thinks  of  raids  as  a  part  of  the  oixlinary  routine  of  life,  and 
of  steady  work  as  soinelhiiiif  fit  only  for  slaves. 

How  Nomads  are  Governed. — Nomads  who  live  in  tents  and  go 
on  niitls  are  almost  invariably  a  source  of  trouble  to  an  oixlinary 
govermnent,  for  not  only  are  they  lawless  raiders,  Init  they  bitterly 
resent  any  outside  intei-ference.  As  the  camps  are  small  and  widely 
scattei-ed  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  punish  evil  doei-s.  Hence  patri- 
archal government,  or  the  "rule  of  the  father"  still  persists.  Each 
c:im))  is  nyti  to  consist  of  relatives.  The  father  sets  up  his  tent  sur- 
rounded by  the  families  of  his  sons  and  nephew'S,  and  often  of  his 
gi-andsons.  His  word  is  law.  AMiere  several  families  live  together 
the  i)ower  is  given  to  a  sheikh.  Sometimes  the  office  of  sheikh  passes 
from  father  to  son,  but  only  when  the  son's  character  justifies  his 
authority  in  the  eyes  of  the  clan.  Othen^■ise,  the  sheikh  is  elected 
because  of  his  wisdom,  coiu'age,  and  hberality. 

Good  QuaUties  in  the  Desert. — The  desert  promotes  good  quaUties 
as  well  as  bad.  The  traveler  is  struck  by  the  proud  and  manly  bearing 
of  the  bronzed  Bedouins.  Although  fierce  and  reckless  when  pushed  by 
necessity,  they  are  faithful  unto  death  when  once  they  have  given 
their  word.  Hos])itality,  too,  is  a  univei-sal  trait.  As  the  nomad 
travels  about  the  desert  in  search  of  straj'  animals  or  on  his  waj'  to  an 
oasis  to  buy  dates  or  sell  animals  he  would  often  suffer  severely  or  even 
perish  if  the  occasional  people  whose  tents  he  ]>asses  were  not  willing 
to  entertain  liim.  Even  in  the  tents  of  his  enemies  a  man  finds  food 
and  shelter  and  can  remain  safely  from  the  evening  of  one  day  till 
the  morning  of  the  second  day  after.  So  strong  is  the  sense  of  hos- 
pitality that  an  Arab  will  make  a  feast  for  a  guest  even  if  he  and  his 
family  are  obUged  to  go  hvmgiy. 

The  Frozen  Deserts  of  the  North.^ — In  cold  deserts  the  nomads 
depentl  jnirtly  on  laiul  animals  and  ])artly  on  those  of  the  sea.  Among 
the  Lapps  who  live  in  the  tundra  the  reindeer  takes  the  place  of  the 
camel  I'nlike  the  Arabs,  however,  the  Lapps  arc  not  gi'eat  raiders. 
This  is  partly  because  fajnhie  does  not  beset  them  so  sorely  as  it  does 
the  Arabs,  and  partly  because  they  cannot  travel  so  easily. 

The  Eskimos  who  depend  on  sea  anijnals  have  a  harder  time  than 
do  the  rein(l(>er  people.  In  extremely  cold  countries  not  only  is  the 
vegetation  of  the  sea  more  abundant  than  that  of  the  land,  but  the 
amount  of  small  floating  animal  life  is  more  than  in  any  other  ])art  of 
the  ocean.  Hence  along  the  northern  coasts  of  Asia  and  America  the 
sea  is  inhabited  by  seals  and  fish  whidi  furnish  food  for  polar  bears, 
wolves,  fo.xes,  gulls,  and  other  sea  birds.     All  of  these  animals  can 


MODES  OF  LIFE   IN   DESERTS   AND   POLAR   REGIONS     317 

be  used  by  man  for  food.  The  land  furnishes  much  less  food  than 
the  sea,  for  although  musk  oxen  and  caribou  are  sometimes  found, 
they  cannot  be  depended  on.  Unfortunately  the  sea  animals  cannot 
be  domesticated.  The  seals,  fish,  l^eare,  and  gulls  come  and  go  as  they 
choose  and  the  Esldmos,  Aleuts,  and  other  coast  nomads  who  depend 
on  them  must  follow  as  best  they  can. 

During  the  summer  the  nomads  Uve  in  tents — crude  little  shelters 
made  of  sldns  and  supported  in  the  center  on  sticks  of  precious  drift- 
wood or  large  bones  like  the  ribs  of  whales.  The  Eskimos  have  even 
less  fvu'niture  than  the  Arabs,  and  their  tents  are  less  pn^tentious.  In 
winter  such  tents  are  too  cold,  for  the  thermometer  remains  far  below 
zero  for  months  during  the  long,  depressing  Arctic  night.  At  that 
season  little  hunting  can  be  done,  and  so  far  as  possible  the  Eskimo 
nuist  live  on  meat  that  they  have  stored  during  the  siunmer.  There- 
fore, having  moved  to  the  most  southern  part  of  the  region  which 
they  frequent,  they  shelter  themselves  in  huts  of  stone,  sod,  and 
skins.  Sometmies,  however,  they  are  obliged  to  migrate  in  search  of 
food  even  in  winter.  Then  at  each  camping  place  they  build  houses 
of  blocks  of  snow,  with  sheets  of  ice  for  windows. 

The  only  domestic  animal  that  the  Eskimo  can  keep  is  the  dog, 
which  draws  his  sledge  and  helps  him  in  his  himting.  The  dog  can 
live  in  the  far  north  because  he  eats  flesh,  whereas  all  other  domestic 
animals  except  the  comparatively  useless  cat  live  almost  wholly  on 
grass,  grain,  or  other  vegetable  products.  Since  most  of  the  animals 
that  are  hunted  by  the  Eskimos  live  in  the  A\'atcr,  boats  are  of  far 
more  importance  than  dogs  as  means  of  transportation.  They  are 
constructed  with  the  greatest  skill  from  sealskin,  bones,  and  driftwood. 
Few  races  are  more  clever  than  the  Eskimo  in  making  the  most  of 
scanty  resources. 

The  Eskimos  are  as  notable  for  their  peaceable  character  as  are 
the  Arabs  for  raids.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  Eskimos  have 
higher  standards  of  right  and  wrong  than  the  Arabs,  or  that  they  have 
greater  prosperity.  They  steal  from  outsider  whenever  they  get  a 
chance,  and  are  so  poverty  strick(Mi  most  of  the  time  that  they  would 
plunder  if  they  could.  They  refrain  from  raids  simply  because  raids 
do  not  pay.  The  next  encampment  may  be  100  miles  away,  for  along 
the  whol(>  northern  coast  of  America  and  part  of  Asia  tne  Eskimos 
nmnber  only  about  30,000.  No  one  has  flocks,  heixls,  or  other  wealt  h. 
The  chances  are  nine  out  of  ten  that  at  times  when  one  comnumity 
is  suffering  from  hunger,  their  neighbor,  even  though  far  ilistant, 
are  also  suffering. 


318        .MAN  .S    RKLATKtX    TO    VEGETATION    AND    ANIMALS 


QUES'l'IONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  I'HoiU.EMS 

1.  Trace  from  a  map  of  llic  Uiiitod  States  the  houmlaries  of  Arizona,  Kansas, 
and  Pennsylvania,  putting  tlie  three  in  a  row.  Insert  one  dot  for  each  1()(),(M)0 
inhaliitants.  Make  a  table  showing  the  comparative  conditions  of  the  three 
States  in  the  following  respects:  (a)  latitude;  (6)  altitude;  (c)  distance  from  the 
ocean;  (ri)  mean  temperature;  (e)  total  rainfall;  {/)  season  of  most  rainfall;  (g) 
type  of  vegetation;  (/()  mode  of  life;  (i)  main  industries;  {j)  population;  (k)  density 
of  i)opulation.  Point  out  the  effect  of  (o)  to  {c),  respectively,  on  each  of  the  con- 
ditions {g)  to  (A-). 

2.  Write  an  account  of  the  Egyptians  in  contrast  witli  tlic  nomads  of  Aial)ia. 
Give  statistics  as  to  rainfall,  temperature,  and  density  of  i)()pulution  for  each 
country.  Describe  main  resources,  method  of  utilizing  the  resources,  types  of 
dwellings,  government  in  its  relation  to  environnirnt,  and  any  other  t<)i)ics  that 
interest  you. 

3.  Look  up  the  article  on  the  Mahommedan  religion  in  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.  Under  the  sub-heading  Ethics  you  will  find  what  are  sometimes 
called  the  "Ten  Commandments"  of  the  religion.  How  many  deal  with  habits 
and  customs  arising  out  of  conditions  of  nomadic  life?     Exi)lain. 

4.  Read  some  account  of  Arctic  or  Antarctic  ex;)l()ration  (Peary,  Scott, 
Sliii/ckleton,  etc.,  will  do.  Mrs.  Peary's  account  of  housekeeping,  etc.,  in  Green- 
huul  is  excellent),  and  then  classify  the  difficulties  encountered  under  the  follow- 
ing heads:  {a)  food;  {h)  preparation  of  a  dwelling  house;  (c)  clothing;  (d)  trans- 
portation and  communication;  (e)  effect  of  climate  on  health  through  (1)  daily 
conditions,  (2)  seasonal  conditions. 

5.  Read  some  account  of  desert  exploration  and  treat  the  matter  as  in  the  jire- 
ceding  question. 

6.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  aborigines  and  first  settlers  in  Arizona. 
In  what  respect  were  some  of  their  occupations  and  habits  like  those  of  the  Arabs? 
Were  there  any  laws  at  all  similar  to  tho.se  of  the  Mahommedans?  What  geo- 
graphical conditions  have  done  most  to  diminish  the  resemblance  between  Ari- 
zona and  Arabia? 

7.  A.  In  an  encyclopa'dia  or  general  history  look  up  the  following  subjects: 

(1)  the  Huns  under  Attila  and  others  about  450  a.d.;  (2)  the  Arabs 
who  burst  out  from  Arabia  about  650  a.d.;  (3)  G(J)enghis  Khan, 
who  devastated  Asia  about  1200  a.d.;  (4)  the  Moguls,  who  swept 
into  India  soon  after  1500  a.d  . 

B.  Find  out  what  effect  the  conditions  of  life  in  stejjpes  and  deserts  have  liad 

in  forming  the  succe.ss-making  cjualities  of  conciuerors  who  came  from 
these  regions. 

C.  Describe  as  many  ways  as  possible  in  which  the  desert  environment  re- 

flects itself  in  the  habits  and  military  methods  of  the.se  conciuerors. 
Some  are  suggested  in  the  following  quotation  regarding  the  Hims: 
"Trained  riders,  archers  and  javelin  throwers  from  infancy,  they 
advaticed  to  the  attack  in  numerous  comjianies  of  horsemen  following 
hard  u|)on  each  other,  avoiding  close  (luarters,  ])ut  wearing  out  their 
antagonists  by  the  ])ersi.stencj'  of  their  onslaughts.  Scarce  a  corner 
of  Euroi)e  was  safe  from  them." 

D.  The  four  outbursts  of  desert  people  mentioned  under  A.  all  took  place 

during  jteriods  when  the  de.serts  sufTered  from  muisual  aridity.  Point 
out  what  this  may  have  had  to  do  with  the  matter. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
IRRIGATION 

How  Egjrpt  Gets  its  Water  for  Irrigation. — In  all  parts  of  the  world 
where  there  is  a  long  thy  season  irrigation  is  practiced,  but  it  is  most 
unportant  in  monsoon  and  cs])ecially  subtropical  regions.  Forty  or 
fifty  centuries  ago  in  the  days  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Baby- 
lonians it  had  already  reached  a  high  stage  of  development.  In 
Egj'pt  nature  makes  it  remarkably  easy  to  practice  irrigation  on  a 
large  scale.  The  White  Nile  or  main  stream  comes  from  three  of  the 
great  lakes  of  Central  Africa  \\'hich  serve  as  reservoirs  and  gi\'e  a 
large  supply  of  water  at  all  seasons.  The  Blue  Nile  and  the  Atbara 
come  from  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia  and  are  subject  to  great  floods 
which  cause  the  river  to  overflow  its  banks  during  the  summer.  Thus 
at  that  season  the  river  not  only  waters  the  land  without  exertion  on 
the  part  of  the  farmers,  but  fertilizes  the  fields  with  rich  alluvium.  In 
order  to  equalize  the  flow  of  water  and  make  irrigation  possible  at  all 
seasons  the  great  Assuan  Dam  has  been  built. 

Some  of  India's  Irrigation  Projects. — In  India  one  single  irrigation 
project  on  the  Chenab,  a  tributary  of  the  Indus,  watere  2,500,000 
acres  and  supports  a  milhon  people.  The  Chenab  Canal  Avas  built 
by  the  British  government  to  increase  the  production  of  gi'ain 
and  relieve  the  severe  overcrowding  in  other  parts  of  India.  Before 
any  land  was  assigned  to  settlers  the  fields,  streets,  and  village  sites 
were  all  laid  out  in  what  was  then  a  desert.  Places  for  the  ])ost  ofhce, 
bazaars,  and  government  offices  were  assigned,  and  evei-ylhing  was 
ready.  Then  800,000  people  pounnl  in  within  eight  years.  The 
canal  cost  nine  million  dollars  and  to-day  the  cr()])s  each  year  are 
worth  about  twelve  million.  Since  ancient  times  southern  India  has 
been  full  of  ''tanks"  or  small  ponds  built  for  irrigation.  In  recent 
decades  all  sorts  of  clever  schemes  have  been  (kn-ised  for  bringing 
water  from  places  where  it  is  plentiful  to  those  wher(^  it  is  scarce. 
For  instance,  the  Cardamom  ISIountains  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
western  (ihats  receive  80  or  100  inches  of  rain  and  the  ]ilains  to  the 
east  only  20  or  30.  Accordingly  the  Periyar  Hi\-er  draining  these 
mountains  on  the  wet  west  side  has  b(>en  made  to  flow  througii  the 
mountains  in  a  tunnel  a  mile  long.  I'juerging  on  the  east  side  it 
waters  the  dry  i)lains  near  the  city  of  Madura, 

319 


320      MANS  ki:lati()x  of  \T5GETation  and  animals 

Irrigation  in  the  United  States. — The  people  of  the  eastern  United 
States  rarely  realize  the  iiii])()rtaii<'e  of  irrigation,  for  in  the  entire 
country  only  one  farm  in  forty  is  irriuated.  Nevertheless  in  the 
western  ])art  one  million  ])(:(i])lc  Vwv  on  fifteen  million  aci'cs  of  ii-ri)j;ate(l 
land. 

The  (.list rihut ion  of  this  land  is  illustrated  in  the  following  table: 


IRRIGATION  IX  Till']  INITED  STATES 


Utah 

Nevada 

Wyoming.  .  . 
Colorado . . .  . 

Idaho 

Arizona 

California.  .  . 
Now  Mexico 
Montana. . . . 

Oregon 

^^'asllington . 


PprocntaKo  of 

Total  Area 

nicludcd  in 

Irrigation 

Projects. 

Percentage  of 

Partus  under 

Irrigation. 

3  J 

91 

2 

89 

31 

57 

9 

56 

OJ 

53 

1 

53 

5^ 

45 

1^ 

36 

4 

34 

4 

15 

2 

15 

The  first  column  of  figures  shows  what  percentage  of  the  total 
area  of  each  State  is  included  in  irrigation  projects.  These  projects 
include  over  two-thirds  of  the  45,000,000  acres  which  may  possibly 
be  irrigated  some  day.  As  yet,  however,  they  hav(>  been  d(>\'eloped 
only  to  the  point  where  about  half  of  the  area  included  in  them  re- 
ceives water.  The  second  colmiin  shows  what  ixMcentage  of  all  the 
farms  arc  irrigated.  In  such  a  State  as  Arizona,  e^■en  though  the 
splendid  Roosevelt  Dam  watei^s  270,000  acres,  there  is  not  water 
enough  to  irrigate  more  than  1  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  and  only 
alxjut  one-half  of  1  per  cent  has  thus  far  been  utilized.  This  small 
fraction,  however,  includes  53  per  cent  of  the  farms  in  the  State. 
The  remaining  47  per  cent  arc  mostly  cattle  ranches,  and  will  prob- 
ably never  be  irrigated. 

California  is  nnich  better  off  than  Arizona.  It  ])ossesses  enough 
water  so  that  51  per  cent  of  the  land  will  probably  be  irrigated  Ix^fore 
many  yeai*s.  Moreover,  among  the  55  jier  cent  of  farms  which  are 
not  iiTigated  a  large  number  are  wheat  ranches,  many  of  which  are  of 
unconnnonly  large  size.  The  largest  single  imgation  project  in 
California  is  in  the  Imjierial  \'alley.  Thcic  the  watei*sof  the  Colorado 
Kivcr,  which  till  1900  flowed  unused  through  a  desert,  now  support 


IRRIGATION 


321 


some  of  the  richest  farms  in  the  United  States.  Tliis  region  closely 
resembles  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt,  and  raises  certain  crops  such  as 
dates,  the  silky  Egyptian  cotton,  and  rare  varieties  of  melons  wliich 
grow  almost  nowhere  else  in  the  United  States. 

Utah  and  Nevada  depend  on  irrigation  more  than  any  other 
States,  for  al^out  90  per  cent  of  their  farms  have  an  artificial  water 
supply.     So  dry  are  these  States,  however,  that  in  spite  of  the  streams 


Fk;.   101. — Irrigation  Projects  under  Reclamation  Act  of  1902. 

coming  from  the  great  Wasatch  and  Sicma  Nevada  ranges,  the 
area  included  in  inigation  projects  is  only  3|  per  cent  of  Utah  and  2 
per  cent  of  Nevada. 

How  Mountains  Make  Irrigation  Possible. — Irrigation  d(>]ienils 
largely  ujxjn  the  presence  of  mountains.  This  is  jiartly  because 
mountains  receive  more  rainfall  than  the  dry  lands  at  their  base  and 
partly  because  mountains  act  as  i-esen'oii-s.  Tlu^  grotmd  water  which 
seeps  into  tliem  in  the  rainy  season  gimhuilly  Hows  out  through 


322        .MANS   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

sprinp;s  at  lower  levels.  If  the  mountains  are  high  enough  so  that  the 
snow  lasts  till  sunnner,  the  water  is  set  free  when  it  is  most  needed  for 
irrigation.  That  is  one  reason  why  India  has  deve]o])(Hl  irrigation 
more  highly  tlian  has  any  other  country.  The  fact  that  both  the 
Ganges  and  tiie  Intlus  flow  from  mountains  covered  with  perpetual 
snow  makes  it  possi])le  for  a  fifth  of  all  the  cultivated  land  of  India  to 
be  irrigated.  Northern  Italy  is  another  fortunate  region.  It  not 
only  has  the  snows  of  the  Alps  to  serve  as  a  resen'oir,  Ijut  some  of  its 
rivei's  such  as  the  Ticino  and  Adda  pass  through  the  beautiful  Lakes 
Maggiore  and  Conio  which  aid  in  keeping  then-  How  stead\'  and  in 
preventing  Hoods. 

In  the  preceding  table  see  how  the  prt^sence  of  snowy  mountains 
influences  the  figmvs  in  the  second  column.  Nine  per  cent  of  the 
lands  of  Colorado  are  included  in  irrigation  projects  because  that 
State  has  great  plains  l^ing  at  the  ])ase  of  the  snowy  Kocldes.  A 
unique  irrigation  project  is  located  in  this  State.  The  Clunnison 
A'alley  contains  a  large  river,  but  only  a  littU^  flat  land,  while  tlu^ 
neighlx)ring  Uncompahgi'e  Valley  contains  a  small  vlvvr  and  ])l(iity  of 
flat  land.  To  bring  the  water  to  the  land  where  it  is  needed  a  tunnel 
()  miles  long  has  been  (hig  so  that  the  water  of  the  Gunnison  River  is 
now  turned  into  the  Uncompahgi-e  Valley.  Idaho  and  California  as 
well  as  Colorado  receive  large  streams  from  snowy  mountains,  and 
hence  the  figures  in  colunm  1  are  comi)aratively  large,  while  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  and  Nevada  do  not  luu'e  such  high  mountains  and  are 
less  foi-tunat(\ 

The  Need  of  Artificial  Reservoirs. — AMiere  the  moimtains  are  not 
high  enough  to  give  abundant  water  tin-oughout  the  (by  season 
artificial  reservoirs  nuist  b(;  made  such  as  the  Koosc^velt  Uesen-oir  in 
ArizcMia,  or  the  tanks  of  India.  Th(>.  chief  troul)le  with  n^servoirs  is 
that  unless  great  precautions  ai'c  taken  they  ultimately  l>ecoiiie  filled 
with  silt.  India  is  full  of  old  tanks  that  have  thus  gradually  l)e(>n 
converted  into  smooth  ])lains  which  are  now  cultivated  with  the  help 
of  irrig-ation  From  newer  tanks. 

Methods  of  Raising  Water  for  Irrigation. — In  many  places  the 
demand  for  iri'igation  cannot  be  iwci.  entirely  by  su])])lies  of  water 
that  flow  to  the  fields  from  mountains  oi'  reser\"oirs.  The  additional 
su])])ly  nmst  l)e  raised  mechanically  frojn  stn>anis  or  wells.  One  of 
the  most  ])rimitive  metlwxls  of  doing  this  may  ho  seen  in  I'^gj'pt  along 
the  banks  of  tiie  Nile.  Tiicrc  1  he  biown-skinnrd  ])easants  fill  buckets 
susiH-nded  from  one  end  of  a  bar  wiiicli  mo\-es  like  a  seesaw.  With 
the  he!])  of  a  weight  at  the  other  end  they  lift  the  water  to  a  higher 
level.  There  it  is  raised  again  by  another  seesaw  a.n<l  so  on  until  it 
reaches  the  level  of  the  fields.     In  India  the  most  familiar  means  of 


IRRIGATION 


323 


y. 


q  ^ 


324        MAX'S   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANnfALS 


~  a 


IRRIGATION  325 

raising  water  is  from  wells  by  means  of  a  large  leathern  bag,  suspended 
by  a  rope  passing  over  a  pulley.  When  the  bag  is  filled  a  pair  of 
bullocks  attached  to  the  end  of  the  rope  arc  slowly  driven  down  an 
incline,  thus  raising  the  bag,  which  is  emptied  into  a  sluice  leading 
to  the  fields. 

These  Oriental  methods  contrast  vi\-idly  with  the  practices  in 
many  of  our  own  irrigation  projects  where  the  water  is  raised  by 
efficient  pmnps  driven  by  windmills,  by  gasoline  engines,  or  ])y  elec- 
tricity generated  by  the  irrigation  water  at  the  dams  higher  up  the 
valleys.  What  is  needed  now  is  some  means  of  reducing  the  cost  of 
power.  If  solar  engines  were  practicable  and  cheap,  irrigation  would 
be  possible  in  many  places  where  it  is  now  out  of  the  question,  for  the 
constant  sunshine  would  furnish  abundant  power  at  low  cost. 

Special  Advantages  of  Irrigated  Lands. — Agriculture  in  irrigated 
regions  enjoys  seven  distinct  advantages :  (1)  The  soil  of  dry  regions, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  is  peculiarly  rich  in  plant  foods,  for  the 
meager  rain  carries  away  onlj'  a  small  portion  of  the  solulile  ingi-e- 
dients.  (2)  In  addition  to  the  abundant  plant  food  in  the  original  soil 
new  food  is  often  provided,  for  many  irrigating  streams  deposit  mud 
which  serves  as  a  fertilizer.  (3)  Since  the  sun  shines  much  of  the 
time  in  irrigated  regions  growth  is  rarely  hindered  by  cool,  cloudy 
weather.  (4)  Neither  do  the  plants  suffer  from  drought  or  from  too 
much  rain,  for  they  can  be  given  o,s  much  or  as  little  water  as  is  ncnxlcd. 
(5)  Weeds  do  not  grow  as  they  do  in  wet  countries.  (6)  The  fruits 
grown  on  irrigated  lands  can  be  dried  easily  and  cheaply.  (7)  Hay 
and  grain  always  ripen  perfectly  and  can  be  harvested  without  getting 
wet.  In  rain}'  lands  vast  quantities  are  often  spoiled  by  being  rained 
on  at  harvTst  time. 

Thus  many  circimistances  combine  to  produce  large  crops  with 
onl}^  a  moderate  amount  of  labor.  In  the  United  States  the  aA'crage 
value  of  the  crops  on  an  acre  of  irrigated  land  is  from  25  to  65  per 
cent  greater  than  in  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Chief  Crops  in  Irrigated  Regions. — (1)  Hay. — The  most  valuable 
irrigated  crop  in  the  United  States  is  alfalfa.  It  occupies  30  per  cent 
of  the  irrigated  land,  and  often  jields  from  three  to  five  crops  each 
year.  Otlier  kinds  of  hay  crops  occupy  another  30  per  cent  of  the 
irrigated  land.  This  is  not  surprising  in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  the 
United  States  as  a  whole  hay  is  more  important  than  any  crop  excej^t 
corn. 

(2)  Fruit. — The  next  most  valuabl(>  irrigated  cro])  in  the  United 
States  is  grapes  and  orchard  fruits  such  as  ]n-unes,  cherries,  ]H>aches, 
and  apples.  Subtropical  fruits  such  as  the  orange  and  lemon  stantl 
next  ill  hnportancQ.     In  other  subtropical  countries  where  fewer 


32G        MANS   1{I:LATK)N    to    VEGETATIUX    AND   ANIMALS 

animals  are  kept  and  loss  hay  is  nordcHl  the  importance  of  fruits  is 
even  pjeater.  For  instance,  the  cliief  monej'  crop  of  (Jrcecc  is  little 
seedless  gi-apes  which  arc  sold  in  our  stores  under  the  name  of  dried 
currants.  \\illi(»ut  tiicni  tlic  (Irccks  would  not  know  what  to  do  for 
ready  money. 

(3)  Rice. — Although  relatively  little  rice  is  raised  in  the  United 
States,  it  is  the  most  imi)ortant  of  irrijiated  crops  in  the  world  as  a 
whole.  The  crop  in  this  country  jjrows  in  th(>  scini-monsoon  regions 
along  tb.e  (  hilf  and  South  Atlantic  Coasts.  IJicc  is  the  only  great  crop 
the  cultivation  of  which  is  limited  to  irrigattnl  rc^gions.  It  cannot 
grow  ]m)perly  unless  its  roots  are  bathed  for  months  in  slowly  moving 
water.  Monsoon  countries  practice  irrigation  chiefly  for  th(>  rice 
crop,  although  other  cro])s  need  it  in  the  early  s]n-ing  before  the  rains 
arriv(\ 

Irrigation  Supports  Dense  Populations. — Irrigation  adds  enor- 
mously to  the  density  of  population.  For  instance,  in  the  Ebro 
and  Tagus  \\alleys  of  Spain  much  of  the  land  produces  twelve  times 
as  much  as  it  would  without  irrigation  and  therefore  supports  a 
corresponding  number  of  ])eo]ile.  I'tah  has  an  area  of  85,000  S(iuare 
miles,  but  most  of  the  400,000  people  live  in  the  1500  s(iuare  miles 
that  are  irrigated.  There  the  population  is  more  than  200  for  every 
square  mile,  while  elsewhere  it  is  less  than  one.  In  Arizona  it  is 
cstijnated  that  one  person  is  added  to  the  population  for  every  two 
acres  brought  under  iri'igation,  or  over  300  per  square  mile.  In  the 
Libyan  oasis  west  of  Eg}'pt,  w^hich  would  be  uninhal)ited  without 
irrigation,  there  are  500  people  for  each  square  mile.  Egj'pt  is  still 
more  remarkable.  Its  cultivated  area,  including  the  long,  nar- 
row flood  plain  and  the  triangular  delta,  amounts  to  about 
11,000  sfjuare  miles,  and  contains  11,000,000  people,  or  1000  per 
squai-e  mile.  It  is  one-fifth  as  large  as  Iowa,  but  supports  five 
times  as  many  inhabitants,  or  twenty-five  times  as  many  ]ier  scjuare 
mile. 

'{"he  cCfc*'!  (if  irrigation  on  the  density  of  p()])ulation  is  well  illus- 
trated by  com])aring  Meso])otamia  and  Kg>'pt.  lioth  n^gions  have 
rivei-s  capal)le  of  use  for  irrigation,  and  both  were  denseh'  ]io])ulated 
before  the  time  of  Christ.  Then  the  people  degeneratcMl  and  were 
troubled  by  fierce  invasions.  Acconlingly  in  Meso]i()tamia  the  dams 
and  canals  were  neglected,  and  were  ruined  by  disastrous  floods  of  the 
Tigiis  and  ICuphrates.  Hence  for  centuries  the  formerly  fertile 
plains  have  had  almost  no  ]io])ulation.  Now  that  the  Great  "War  has 
put  this  region  imder  the  jirotection  of  Fnglaiid  new  ii-rigation  works 
are  being  binlt,  and  in  a  few  generations  the  i)()i)ulati(in  may  be  as 
dense  as  that  of  l'gy])t. 


IRRIGATION  327 

How  Irrigation  Prevents  Famine. — One  of  the  most  important 
advantages  of  irrigation  is  tliat  it  prevents  famine.  Thus  it  saves 
millions  of  Uves,  especially  in  densely  populated  areas  Kke  India  and 
China.  In  India  the  British  govermnent  has  not  only  carried  out 
great  irrigation  schemes  to  reclaim  deserts,  but  has  spent  millions  of 
dollars  to  irrigate  land  that  needs  water  only  in  occasional  years  of 
special  drought.  One  such  project  cost  $1,500,000.  Its  ordinary 
receipts  from  the  sale  of  water  are  not  enough  by  over  $G0,000  per 
year  to  pay  interest  and  running  expenses,  but  in  a  single  dry  year, 
1896-7,  when  the  crops  would  have  failed  without  it,  this  one  project 
enabled  the  farmers  to  raise  crops  worth  $750,000  and  saved  thousands 
of  lives. 

In  Egypt  the  floods  commonly  rise  to  a  level  averaging  2oh  feet 
above  the  ordinary  low  water  level  at  the  First  Cataract.  In  1877  the 
flood  rose  only  20  feet.  The  difference  of  5|  feet  prevented  the  water 
from  flowing  to  nearly  a  million  acres  of  land.  Terrible  famine 
ensued  and  the  govermnent  lost  $5,500,000  simply  in  taxes  because 
the  poverty-stricken,  famishing  people  could  not  pay.  The  gi'eat 
Assuan  Dam  was  built  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  disasters. 
Behind  it  the  Nile  has  been  converted  into  a  narrow  lake  200  miles 
long  so  that  there  is  plenty  of  water  at  all  seasons. 

Contrast  Eg;>q3t's  experience  with  that  of  China.  Although 
China  has  many  small  irrigation  works,  she  has  not  had  a  modern 
government  to  carry  out  great  irrigation  projects.  Therefore  we  are 
frequently  called  upon  to  contribute  to  relief  funds  for  the  millions 
who  suffer  from  famine.  In  addition  to  her  primitive  irrigation 
system,  China  needs  great  dams,  canals,  and  aciueducts,  not  onh-  to 
provide  water  in  times  of  drought,  but  to  control  the  water  in  times  of 
flood.  If  China's  gi'eat  rivers  could  be  properly  regulated,  not  only 
would  the  people  themselves  be  saved  from  untold  suffering,  but  the 
wealth  of  the  country  would  greatly  increase  to  the  benefit  of  other 
countries  as  well  as  of  itself.  The  purchasing  power  of  the  country 
would  probably  increase  so  much  as  to  make  a  difference  of  scores  of 
millions  of  dollare  each  year  in  the  trade  of  the  United  States  alone. 

How  Irrigation  Promotes  Civilization. — Irrigation  is  one  of  the 
strongest  agencies  in  promoting  civilization.  The  earliest  civiliza- 
tions grew  up  in  Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  Northern  India,  and  China, 
where  irrigation  has  always  been  of  the  highest  iin])ortance.  There 
are  at  least  five  distinct  ways  in  which  irrigation  promotes  ci-\-ilization: 
(1)  People  who  practice  irrigation  cannot  wander  from  place  to  ])lace 
as  do  primitive  savages.  They  must  stay  in  one  home.  Hence 
every  improvement  that  they  make  in  their  houses  or  fields  is  of  per- 
manent value,  and  stimulat.es  them  to  do  more, 


328       MAX'S  RELATION   TO  VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

(2)  Such  people  loam  to  have  forotlioiip;ht,  for  otherwise  their 
ditches  and  dams  will  not  he  ready,  and  llicir  cr()])s  will  not  p:row. 
They  also  learn  industry,  for  they  cannot  put  off  liicir  work.  If  the 
water  is  led  onto  the  fields  too  late  or  allowed  to  remain  too  lonp;  there 
will  he  a  ix)or  han'cst.  Forethought  and  uidustry  arc  at  the  base  of 
all  advances  in  civilization. 

(3)  In-igation  also  ])romotes  civilization  hy  teachinp;  p(>ople  to  live 
in  peace  and  submit  to  the  will  of  the  majority.  Su])])os('  a  number  of 
fanners  settle  along  a  small  stream  in  a  lunv  countiy.  In  a  diy  year 
those  living  farther  u]vstream  are  tempted  to  take  too  much  water, 
thus  insuring  good  cro])s  for  themselves,  but  ruining  those  of  the 
people  farther  down-stream.  "\Mu^n  sucli  things  ha]')p(^n  quarrels 
arise  at  once.  In  our  own  "\\'est(n-n  States,  when  irrigation  was  fii-st 
begmi  and  In^fore  laws  had  been  framed,  more  than  one  fight  with 
guns  occurred  for  just  these  reasons.  Such  a  concUtion,  however,  can- 
not continue.  People  soon  realize  that  if  anyone  ])egins  to  tam]wr 
with  the  water,  all  the  rest  run  the  risk  of  serious  loss  because^  their 
own  crops  may  ]yo  left  chy.  Hence  strict  laws  are  passed,  and  i)ublic 
o])inion  enforces  them  most  sternly.  "When  people  learn  to  obey  the 
law  so  carefully  in  one  res])ect,  they  tend  also  to  obey  in  others.  Ac- 
cordingly few  places  are  more  peaceable  and  law-abiding  than  irriga- 
tion connnunities  even  among  peo])le  otherwise  1(jw  in  the  scale  of 
civilization. 

(4)  Irrigation  also  helps  to  teach  self-government.  For  example, 
in  piiris  of  northern  Italy  the  users  of  water  from  a  givcMi  ditch  meet 
in  November  and  elect  re])resentatives  to  a  sort  of  water  ])arliament 
representing  all  who  are  su])])lied  by  onc^  large  canal.  Each  village 
plans  beforehand  what  cr()])s  it  will  raise  the  next  year.  Then  the 
water  is  divided  according  to  the  need  of  each. 

(5)  Another  way  in  which  irrigation  ])romotes  civilization  is  ])y 
causing  people  to  live  close  together,  and  yet  letting  each  family'  have 
a  yard  of  its  own.  In  California,  for  instance,  the  irrigated  farms, 
especially  those  where  fruit  is  raised,  are  comparatively  small  and  no 
one  feels  that  he  is  far  from  his  neighboi-s.  Where  ])eo])l('  live  com- 
pactly in  irrigatcnl  district.s,  they  aic  a]>le  to  support  good  schools, 
churches,  and  other  helpful  institutions. 


QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

L  A.  Use  the  table  near  tho  bc-Kinniiifi;  of  tliis  chapter  as  a  basis  of  a  dia- 
gram. Let  lines  of  appropriate  l('iit!;th  rc|)resent  (1)  the  area  of 
each  State  included  in  irrigati(jn  projects;  (2)  the  percentage  of  irri- 
gated furiu-s. 


IRRIGATION  329 

B.  Add  to  your  diagram  (3)  the  proportion  of  each  State  which  is  mountain- 

oas  and  (4)  the  population  per  scjuare  mile.  You  can  estimate  what 
part  of  each  State  it  mountainous  by  studying  relief  maps. 

C.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  insert  heavy  lines  of  appropriate 

length  to  indicate  the  percentage  of  farms  under  irrigation.  Regard- 
less of  State  boundaries,  draw  lines  to  indicate  what  you  infer  to  be 
areas  showing  the  following  conditions:  (1)  over  80  per  cent  of  farms 
under  irrigation;  (2)  20-80  per  cent;  (3)  1-20  per  cent;  (4)  less  than 
1  per  cent.     In  making  your  map  use  Figs.  SI  and  101. 

2.  In  the  budget  estimated  for  1915-191()  for  India,  a  total  expenditure  of  over 
£83,000,000  was  planned.  Of  tliis  £1,000,000  was  set  aside  for  famine  relief  and 
almost  £4,000,000  for  irrigation.  In  the  estimated  expenditure  for  Canada  these 
items  are  not  listed.  Explain  these  facts  by  reference  to  the  physical  geography. 
Find  similar  figures  for  the  United  States  and  discuss  their  meaning. 

3.  The  French  recently  advanced  a  project  for  great  irrigation  works  in  the 
upper  French  Congo  which,  it  was  claimed,  would  make  the  region  a  second 
Egyi^t.  Make  maps  to  show  the  rainfall,  mountain,  and  river  systems,  and 
natural  vegetation  of  the  two  countries  in  order  to  test  the  truth  of  this  conten- 
tion. Write  an  account  of  French  Nigeria  from  this  point  of  view,  using  your 
maps  as  illustrations. 

4.  The  possibility  of  irrigating  Egypt  is  largely  due  to  the  rehef  of  Africa. 
Find  two  regions  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  which  have  a  rainfall  and  natural 
vegetation  comparable  to  those  of  Egj-pt.  Examine  how  far  it  is  possible  to 
increase  their  fertility  by  irrigation  and  the  part  played  by  the  relief  in  such  a 
project. 

5.  Compare  the  rainfall  of  the  United  States  with  the  irrigation  map  of  the 
Western  States.  Choose  four  important  irrigated  areas  in  ditT(>r('nt  States. 
Find  out  the  distribution  of  rainfall  in  summer  and  winter.  Show  tlie  relation 
of  this  to  irrigation.  Show  also  what  other  conditions  make  irrigation  necessary 
or  profitable.  In  which  area  would  >ou  expect  the  water  sujjply  to  be  most  steady 
and  abundant?     ^^'hy? 


CIIArTKR  XVIIl 
MAN'S  WORK  IN  REGIONS  OF  CYCLONIC  STORMS 

The  Location  of  the  Regions  of  Cyclonic  Storms. — Iji  our  siir- 
voyof  hujiuui  activities \vo  luiv(Ui()W  coiiu'  to  the  most  advanced  })arts 
of  the  world.  These  ar(>  the  rejiioiis  of  cyclonic  storms.  Thej'  form 
two  irregular  belts.  'J'he  southern  lich  includes  only  the  southern 
part,  of  South  America  and  a  small  hit  of  southeastern  Australia  to- 
gether with  New  Zealand.  The  northern  hi'lt  crosses  North  America 
and  Eurasia  at  their  widest  parts.  In  the  western  hemisphere  it  in- 
cludes most  of  the  United  States  and  southern  Canada,  and  in  the 
eastern,  most  of  Europe.  The  only  parts  not  included  are  southern 
Spain,  southern  Italy,  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  tlu^  dry  region 
around  the  Cas])ian  Sea  together  with  the  districts  bordering  the  Arc- 
tic. In  Asia  the  northern  cyclonic  belt  extends  into  Siberia,  where  it 
is  followed  by  the  line  of  the  Siberian  Hailroad,  but  the  cold  tundra- 
like regions  on  the  north  and  the  great  deserts  on  the  south  compress 
it  to  such  narrow  limits  that  in  the  far  intei'ior  it  almost  (lisapi)ears. 
On  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  however,  it  icapix'ais  and  binadcns  to 
include  .Ia])an. 

Characteristics  of  a  Cyclonic  Climate. — Climatically  the  cyclonic 
belts  iia\-e  three  chief  characteristics:  (1)  Rain  falls  in  moderate 
al)undance  at  all  seasons.  (2)  The  weatlun*  is  subject  to  marked 
changes  every  few  days.  These  two  characteristics  arc  both  due  to 
the  frequent  passage  of  cyclones  followed  by  anti-cyclones.  (3) 
The  seasons  are  strongly  pronounced.  The  ^\  inters  are  cool  or  more 
often  cold,  and  the  summers  A\arm  or  hot.  Thus  the  regions  of 
cyclonic  storms  are  ])articuhii-iy  favorable  not  only  to  agi'iculture 
because  of  the  even  distribution  of  rainfall  throughout  the  year,  but  to 
man  because  of  A-ai'ialions  of  weatlun-both  from  day  to  day  and  from 
season  to  season.  In  the  course  of  a  year  they  (^\])erience  sa.m])les  of 
the  climate  of  ahiiost   e\('ry  l)art   of  the  ^\•orld. 

The  Natural  Vegetation  of  Cyclonic  Regions. — The  cyclonic 
regions,  in  a.  state  of  nat  ure,  are  usually  clothed  with  deciduous  forests, 
but  also  include  the  southern  fringes  of  the  great  coniferous  forests  of 
the  northern  hemis])here.  Some  ]iarts  also  consist  of  grasslands  lik(> 
t  he  ])raiiies.  The  deciduous  forests  com])rise  bi-oad-leaA'cd  t  I'ees  such 
as  the  birch,  beech,  ash,  mai^le,  oak,  elm,  willow,  and  i)oi)lar.      Pines 

330 


MAN'S   WORK   IN   REGIONS  OF  CYCLONIC   STORMS       331 

however,  are  frequently  mixed  with  them.  Such  forests  prevail  in 
large  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States,  England,  France,  Germany, 
and  neighboring  parts  of  Europe.  The  variety  of  the  trees  is  in  accord 
with  the  variety  of  crops  wliich  can  be  raised  in  the  cyclonic  regions. 

The  coniferous  forests  included  in  the  cyclonic  area  occupy  south- 
ern Canada,  southern  Scandmavia,  and  central  Russia  together  with 
certain  mountainous  sections  like  Japan. 

The  grasslands  he  in  the  interior  of  North  America  and  Eurasia 
in  the  same  latitude  as  the  deciduous  forests.  They  occur  in  places 
where,  although  rain  falls  at  all  seasons,  continental  influences  cause 
it  to  be  less  abundant  in  winter  than  in  summer.  Thus  while  the 
American  prairies,  the  plain  of  Hungary,  and  parts  of  the  plains  of 
Russia  and  Siberia  have  a  cyclonic  chmate  favorable  for  man  and 
agi'iculture,  they  are  not  favorable  for  trees. 

How  Cyclonic  Regions  Dominate  Civilization. — ^Although  the 
regions  where  cyclonic  storms  are  highly  developed  occupy  only  a 
tenth  of  the  total  land  surface  of  the  earth,  they  support  a  population 
of  000,000,000  and  include  the  world's  most  progressive  countries, 
as  appears  in  Fig.  85.     This  is  clear  from  the  following  list: 

COUNTRIES  INCLUDED  IN  AREA  OF  CYCLONIC  STORMS 

A.  Europe  (about  400,000,000  peo])le)      B.  North    America  (about   100,000,000 

British  Isles  people) 

France  United  States 

Belf^ium  Southern  Canada 
Holland 

Denmark  C.  Asia  (about  80,000,000  people) 

Southern  Norway  Japan 

Southern  Sweden  West  central  Siberia 
SoutherTi  Finland 

Germany  D.  South    America    (about    lO.OOO.OOO 

Switzerland  people) 

Northern  Spain  Central  Argentina 

Northern  Italy  Central  Chile 
Austria 

Poland  E.  Australia  (about  ri,000,000  jieople) 

Czechoslovakia  Southeastern  Austraha 

Jugoslavia  New  Zealand 
Bulgaria 
Roumania 

Western,  Southern,  and  Central 
Russia 

This  list  includes  the  only  im]i()rtant  parts  of  tlu^  world  where 
iii;i.inif;i(t  tiring  :iiid  commerce  as  well  as  agiiculture  an>  eai'ried  on 
exti'nsi\-elv.     '1  he  inhabitants  of  the  (•^'(•loIli(•  n^gions  are  so  I'.neru'etic 


332        MANS    Ki;LAri(»N    TO    VEGETATION    AND   ANLMALS 

t.h:it  they  r;iiso  f:ir  inoiv  food  tluMi  those  of  other  ropions;  thoy  mine 
most  of  tlie  miiicrtils.  ami  ])r(']xir('  most  of  the  raw  materials.  Tiiey 
iIl^•ellt  and  run  the  world's  machinery,  eonstruct  its  ^vii\  ])ower 
])laMts,  and  i)repare  its  manufactured  floods.  They  also  build  rail- 
roads l)oth  at  home  and  abroad;  tlu>y  en^;ineer  the  pjeat  tunnels, 
bridges,  and  harbor  works  in  e\ery  land;  and  sail  their  shii)s  to  every 
corner  of  the  seven  seas.  ^Moreover,  they  Severn  the  world,  for 
amonji  them  they  rule  ])racti('ally  all  of  Africa,  and  all  of  Asia  exee])t 
China,  while  elsewhere  their  voice  is  dominant  tlu'oujih  the  I.eaji;ue  of 
Nations.  All  these  act  i\itics  ])ut  them  in  the  forefront  of  civilization. 
The  World's  Chief  Products. — It  is  most  (extraordinary  to  see  how 
large  a  ]xirt  of  the  articles  that  enter  into  the  workl's  commerce  come 
from  countries  where  cyclonic  storms  ])revail.  This  is  true  of  food 
and  raw  materials  as  well  as  of  manufactured  j2;oods.  Here  is  a  table 
of  37  of  the  most  imjjortant  ])roducts  aside  from  manufactures.  The 
approximate  value  of  the  new  material  produced  each  yc^ar  is  (riven  in 
the  table,  l)Ut  it  must  be  understood  that  this  is  only  a  roufih  estimate, 
since  figures  are  not  available  for  all  parts  of  the  world  and  prices  vary 
constantly.  Nevertheless  the  figures  give  a  good  idea  of  the  relative 
importance*  of  different  j^roducts,  and  of  their  enormous  production, 
l-'or  wood  and  millet,  however,  no  data  are  available  even  for  an 
estimate,  but  they  have  been  given  j)laces  that  indicate  their  pnjbablo 
importance. 

THE  WORLDS  CHIEF  PRODUCTS 

A.  Food  Prod  ads 

1 .  Rice $8,000,000,000 

2.  Whotit** .^).()()().()(»(),()()() 

:i.   Potatoes** ."), 01)0. noil, ()()() 

4.  Dairy  pnxiucts** r),()l)(). ()()(). 0(10 

T>.  Corn* ;i,.")( )(),()()( I. ()()() 

().  Slu'Pi)  and  goats* .3, 01)0. ()()(), 000 

7.  Millet 

5.  Cattle  fexeliuliii^  Indcs)* 'J.^OO.OOO.OOO 

9.  Swine** 'J.oOO.OOO.OOO 

10.  Poultry  and  eggs** 2,r)()0,00().00() 

11.  Oats** 2,r)()0.0()0,()0() 

12.  Venetahles  (cxcliKliiifi  potatoes) 

V.i.  Rye** 2,0()(),000,000 

14.  Siinar* 2, 000. 000, 000 

1.').  Beans l.:)00.0()0,()00 

IC).  liarley* 1,. ■)()(). 000, 000 

17.   Coffee (100. 000, 000 

15.  Tobacco 100,000,000 

B.  Raw  Mdlcridls 

1.  Coal** c.ooo.ooo.ooo 

2.  Cotton 2,000,000.000 

;}.  Iron** 2,000,000,000 

4.   Petroleum* 2,000,000,000 


MAN'S  WORK  IN  REGIONS  OF  CYCLONIC  STORMS         333 

5.  Wood* 

6.  Wool* $1,500,000,000 

7.  Hides* l,r){)(),()()0,()()0 

8.  Copper* .")()( ),()()(), 000 

9.  Gold 1()(),()()(),()(){) 

10.  Rubber 4()(),()()(),()()() 

11.  Raw  silk** 30(),()()(),()()() 

12.  Flaxseed ;■}()(),()()(),()()() 

13.  Flax  fiber 'ioO.OOO.OOO 

14.  Lead** l.')(),()()(),()()() 

15.  Silver* 140. ()()(), ()()() 

16.  Tin l:i(), 000,000 

17.  Zinc** 120,0()0,0(K) 

C.  Other  Products 

1.  Hay 3,500,00(),()00 

2.  Horses 1,500,000,000 


In  the  table  of  the  world's  chief  products  two  stars  have  been 
added  to  each  product  which  comes  mainly  from  cyclonic  regions; 
and  one  to  those  derived  in  about  equal  measure  from  cyclonic  and 
non-cyclonic  regions.  Notice  that  of  the  23  products  with  a  value  of  a 
billion  dollare  or  more  per  year  1 1  come  mainly  from  cyclonic  regions, 
namely,  wheat,  potatoes,  dairy  products,  oats,  rye,  barley,  swine,  coal, 
iron,  hay,  and  horees.  Eight  others  corn,  sheep,  poultry,  cattle,  sugar, 
wood,  hides,  wool,  and  copper,  come  partly  from  such  regions.  This 
leaves  only  three,  rice,  millet,  and  cotton,  which  are  not  produced  in 
vast  quantities  in  the  cyclonic  regions.  How  poor  the  non-cyclonic 
regions  seem  with  only  three  great  products  of  their  own  and  part  of 
nine  others,  although  they  occupy  nine-tenths  of  the  land  area  of  the 
globe.  Contrast  this  with  the  11  great  products  of  the  cyclonic 
regions,  to  which  must  be  added  part  of  eight  othere  and  practically 
all  of  the  world's  machinery,  textile  products,  and  other  manufac- 
tures. Although  the  cyclonic  regions  include  only  about  a  t(Mith  of 
all  the  lands  and  two-fifths  of  all  the  world's  people,  their  prodiK  Is 
are  worth  three  times  as  much  as  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world. 
In  other  words,  each  individual  in  the  cyclonic  regions  pro(luc(^s  at 
least  five  or  six  tinu\s  as  much  as  the  average  individual  in  the  otiicr 
parts  of  the  world. 

The  great  supremacy  of  the  cyclonic  regions  is  due  ])riniai'ily  to 
the  inherit(Ml  a])ility  of  the  people,  and  to  the  stimulating  cHmate,  as 
explained  in  a  previous  chapter.  It  is  also  due  in  part  to  three  other 
causes:  (1)  a  climate  more  favorable  than  any  other  to  crops  whicii 
are  highly  nourisliing  and  can  be  kept  a  long  time;  (2)  climate 
and  veg(>tation  favorable*  to  tlie  most  Aaluable  of  all  domestic 
animals;  and  (3)  great  suppliers  of  coal  and  iron  which  are  easily 
available. 


834 


MANS   HELATIOX   TO  VKHF/l' A  TlOX    AND   ANIMALS 


Food  Products  of  Cyclonic  Regions:  Wheat. — In  onlcr  to  };ain 
;i  deal-  idea  of  tlic  coiulit  ions  wiiich  make  cyt'louic  rcfjions  so  favoral)le 
to  tlio  i^rodiK'tion  of  food,  lot  us  examine  some  of  the  chief  food  prod- 
ucts and  study  tlieir  distribution  as  shown  on  maps.  Most  people 
recojinize  that  wheat  is  the  most  vahiahle  of  all  food-stuffs,  but  not  till 
wheat  Ix^camc  scarce  during  the  Great  War  did  the  world  r(>alize  how 
nnich  we  lean  on  this  staff  of  Ufe.  Then  England,  France,  Italy,  ancl 
other  coimtries  Ix^sought  the  United  States  to  send  wheat,  more 
wheat,  and  still  more  wheat.  For  a  time  it  was  more  valuable  than 
guns  and  ammunition ;  it  was  the  one  thing  that  could  not  by  anj'  pos- 
sibility be  s]xired  if  the  war  for  self-government  was  to  be  fought  to  a 
finish.     So  the  I'liiled  States  had  to  limit  its  own  coiisumijtion,  and 


Courtesu  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculturr. 

Fh;.  104.— The  World'.s  Production  of  Wheat. 


pay  ]x)unties  to  the  farmei-s  to  enable  them  to  raise  larger  quantities 
of  this  most  valuable  of  food  products. 

The  great  value  of  wheat  lies  in  the  fact  that  (1)  it  is  highly 
nutritious,  so  that  ev(>n  if  people  have  no  other  food  they  can  hve  on 
it  a  long  time.  In  this  respect  it  is  much  superior  to  rice,  its  nearest 
rival  in  imjiortance.  (2)  It  is  economically  produced.  From  seed 
time  until  it,  is  barreled  up  as  flour  all  the  processes  can  be  performed 
b\  machinery.  (3)  Wheat  can  be  kept  a  long  time  either  in  the 
form  of  the  whole  grain  or  flour.  In  this  it  is  far  supcM-ior  to  corn, 
which  would  otherwise*  have  an  advantage  because  the  yield  per  acre 
is  s(j  large. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  Fig.  104  and  sec  how  the  ]m«luction  of  wheat 
is  related  to  the  cyclonic  areas. 


MAN'S  WORK  IN  REGIONS  OF  CYCLONIC  STORMS       335' 

Althoiigh  western  Europe  is  one  of  the  most  densely  populated 
parts  of  the  world,  it  is  also  the  greatest  center  of  wheat  production. 
The  cj'clonic  area  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  comes  second, 
and  that  of  central  Argentina  holds  high  rank.  8u])tr()pical  and 
monsoon  countries,  especially  the  Mediterranean  lands,  and  northern 
India  produce  a  good  deal,  but  their  production  is  not  a  sixth  as  gi-eat 
as  that  of  the  cj'clonic  regions.  In  equatorial  regions  the  warm  moist 
climate  forbids  the  growth  of  wheat.  Even  in  the  northern  cyclonic 
regions  large  areas  produce  only  a  Uttle  because  they  are  too  moist  in 
summer  or  else  too  snowy  in  winter.     Wheat  wants  a  region  with  cool 


Fig.  105. — Distribution  of  Potatoes. 

From  Gcoyraphij  of  the  WorhVs  AffricuUurc,  by  V.  C.  Finch  and  O.  E.  Baker. 


wintei-s,  and  plenty  of  moisture  in  the  fall  and  spring,  but  not  too 
much  in  sununer.  It  is  naturally  a  product  of  subtroi)ical  regions, 
where  its  bearded  wild  ancestor  is  still  known.  Nevertheless  through 
the  ingenuity  of  man  it  has  now  become  mainly  a  product  of  the  re- 
gions of  cyclonic  storms.  Contrast  its  distribution  with  that  of  rice, 
Fig.  95,  which  is  a  t3'])ical  i)roduct  of  tropical  and  especially  monsoon 
regions. 

Potatoes. — Potatoes,  Fig.  105,  are  a  cyclonic  crop  even  more 
strikingly  than  wheat.  Practically  none  are  raised  outside  the  cy- 
clonic regions.  Western  L'urope  seems  almost  to  be  one  great  jiotato 
patch.  We  think  that  w(>  rais(>  a  great  many  potatoes,  but  I'ju'ope 
raises  90  ])er  cent  of  the  woild  ci'o)).  In  norlhci-n  I'urojK'  this  croj) 
occupies  ]nuch  Ihc  same  ])re-cniincnt  ))osition  as  tlu'  rice  ciop  in  the 


330        MANS    HKLATIOX    TO    \  I-.di;  TATIUX    AND   ANIMALS 

Orient  and  corn  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States.  We  speak  of 
Irish  potatoes  IxH-ause  the  damp  cool  cUniate  causes  them  to  be  the 
chief  food  in  Irehmd.  Tlie  Irish  crop,  however,  is  a  small  matter 
compared  with  that  of  CJermany,  which  is  four  thnes  as  larji;e  as  that 
of  the  whole  United  States.  'Hiis  (^xi)lahis  how  it  ha])])ened  that 
during  the  Great  War  the  savinu'  of  the  waste  causcil  by  jx'eling  raw 
potatoes  was  an  important  means  of  enabling  the  Clermans  to  get 
food  enough  when  their  outside  supplies  were  cut  off.  It  is  strange 
that  the  ]>otato  which  originated  in  the  tropical  highlands  of  America 
should  now  l)e  raised  chiefly  in  the  cyclonic  regions  of  E;ur()])(\ 

Corn. — The  map  of  corn,  Fig.  lOG,  shows  an  interesting  contrast 
to  that  of  potatoes.     The  two  crops  both  grow  most  abundantly  in 


Cuurtcsy  of  V.  S.  Dcpartnunt  of  Atiriculturt . 

Fig.  10().— The  World's  I'roductioii  of  Corn. 


thc^  United  States  and  Iun-()])e,  but.  not  in  the  same  places.  Corn  on 
the  whole  gi-ows  somewhat  equatorward  of  potatoes.  It  needs  hot, 
sunny  weather  with  abundant  showers.  In  the  United  States  these 
conditions  occiii-  on  the  southeastern  flank  of  the  cj'clonic  l)elt  from 
Iowa,  Illinois,  ami  Ohio  southeastward.  In  Europe  the  corn  belt. 
lies  similarly  on  the  southeastern  flank  of  the  storm  belt,  so  that  it 
falls  in  Italy,  Austria,  and  Koumania.  In  South  America,  again, 
the  main  corn  area  in  Argentine  lies  in  a  similar  position,  which  means 
that  it  is  located  on  the  northeast  or  equatorward  margin  of  the  storm 
lx;lt.  Corn  likewise-  gi'ows  outside  of  the  cyclonic  belt  in  ])laces  like 
Mexico,  and  in  Mg>'pt  and  India  where  it  is  irrigated.  Three-fourths 
of  the  world's  cro]),  however,  grows  in  tiie  United  States,  while  the 


MAN'S   WORK   IN   REGIONS   OF   CYCLONIC   STORMS       337 

production  in  other  American  countries,  especially  Mexico  and 
Argentine,  equals  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  In  this  case,  quite 
unlike  the  potato,  a  plant  which  is  native  to  America  is  still  cultivated 
chiefly  in  this  continent.  Nevertheless,  although  corn  originated  in 
tropical  regions  and  was  mainly  cultivated  there  for  many  centuries, 
the  superior  energy  of  the  people  of  the  cyclonic  belt  has  now  caused 
it  to  be  chiefly  a  crop  of  cyclonic  areas.  Corn,  potatoes,  and  wheat 
all  illustrate  the  striking  fact  that  if  a  plant  is  unusually  good  for 
food  the  people  of  cyclonic  regions  take  it  in  hand  and  not  only  im- 
prove it,  but  produce  new  varieties  which  will  grow  where  these  people 
want  them.  That  is  one  great  reason  why  so  large  a  number  of  the 
world's  chief  food  crops  grow  in  cyclonic  regions. 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Fig.  107. — World  Distrihutiou  of  Hogs. 


Oats,  Rye,  and  Barley. — Of  the  three  cereals  which  stand  next  to 
corn  in  imix)rtan<'(%  both  oats  and  barley  are  naturally  products  of 
the  cyclonic  regions  of  Europe  where  they  now  chiefl>'  occur.  Rye 
came  originally  from  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  subtropical  n^gion 
around  the  IMediterranean  and  in  western  Asia.  Oats,  Fig.  108,  grow- 
in  nmch  the  same  cyclonic  regions  as  potatoes,  but  are  more  wid(>ly 
distributed.  They  are  equally  good  for  men  and  hoi-ses,  but  unfor- 
tunately are  so  bulky  that  they  cannot  bear  the  cost  of  long  trans- 
portation. Hence  they  arc  largely  consumed  close  to  where  they 
grow  and  are  used  for  horses  more  then  for  men.  Rye  gi-ows  in  much 
the  same  places  as  ]iotatoes  and  oats,  that  is,  farther  nortii  tiian  wheat, 
but  within  the  hmits  of  the  cyclonic  regions.     About  96  per  cent  of 


338       MAN'S   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 


the  world's  cntiro  crop  is  raised  in  Euro])o,  ospcM-ially  Bolp:inm,  Oor- 
niaiiy,  and  central  Hussia.  It  occu))i('s  llic  jjoorcst  soils  of  cyclonic 
regions  as  well  us  the  poorcsl  clinialcs.  and  is  eaten  l>y  the  poorest 
people.  Harley  ^rows  in  essentially  tlu>  same  ))laces  as  wheat,  hut 
has  a  shorter  ^i-owinji  season  and  can  endure  jri'eater  aridity  and  lower 
tein])eraturc.  Hence  barley  increases  in  relative  inii)ortance  on  the 
edp's  of  the  wheat  rejjions,  such  as  North  Africa  and  'I'urkey,  where 
the  climate  is  dry,  and  in  (Ireat  Britain  antl  Scantlinavia,  where  the 
climate  is  cool. 

Swine. — Swine,  Viii.  107,  illustrate  the  way  in  which  the  people  of 
the  cyclonic  areas  take  animals,  as  well  as  plants,  from  other  parts  of 


Fig.  108.— Distribution  of  Oats. 

From  Geoaraphy  uf  the  World's  Agriculture,  by  V.  C.  Finch  and  0.  E.  Baker. 

the  world  and  make  them  much  more  useful  than  in  their  native 
homes.  Wild  i)ifi;s  of  one  kind  or  anotlun-  are  found  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  while  Iheii-  near  relatives,  the  peccaries, 
occur  from  New  Mexico  southward  to  Pata<::onia.  The  wild  ]iiss 
find  it  easiest,  to  fjet  a  living  in  the  warmer  regions,  and  domestic 
])ijrs  can  l>e  ke])t  in  sudi  re<;ioiis  with  the  niiiiimuni  amount  of  work. 
Yet  to-day  the  central  I'liited  States,  where  there  have  heen  no  wild 
])ips  for  millions  of  yeai-s,  has  more  swine  in  ])roportion  to  the  ])o])u- 
lation  than  any  country  except  Demnark.  ()ther  cyclonic  coun- 
tries like  ( iermany,  .Austria.  Ilunfiary,  and  Arjicntina  also  have  a 
relatively  larfie  numher.  When^  tro])ical  or  Oriental  countries  have 
maiiN-  ]>itz;s.  as  in  X'enezuela,  ( 'olombia,  and  ('hina,  it  generally  means 
that  they  have  very  few  other  domestic  animals,  and  that  they  can 


MAN'S   WORK   IN   REGIONS  OF  CYCLONIC   STORMS        339 


keep  the  pigs  with  ahnost  no  troii])le.  In  Mohammedan  countries, 
on  the  contrary,  the  use  of  swine  for  food  is  for]>idden  l)y  rehgion,  and 
hence  as  the  map  shows,  the  famihar  pig  stye  is  absent  in  those 
lands. 

Americans  often  suppose  that  pigs  everywhere  Uvc  on  corn.  This 
is  true  in  America,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Figs.  !()()  and  107. 
In  the  more  progressive  countries  of  Europe,  however,  the  pigs  are 
fed  on  barley,  potatoes,  skinuned  milk  and  root  crops,  while  in  regions 
like  Servia  they  are  often  turned  out  in  the  oak  forests  to  fatten  on 
acorns.  In  Germany  before  the  war  about  600,000,000  bushels  of 
potatoes,  or  one  and  a  half  times  the  ortUnary  crop  (jf  the  United 


Fig.  109. — Distribution  of  Horses. 

Froyn  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture,  by  V.  C.  Finch  and  0.  E.  Baker, 

States,  were  fed  to  the  pigs  each  yoar.  Just  as  the  American  farm- 
ers of  the  cyclonic  b(4t  raise  millions  of  bushels  of  corn  in  oixler  that 
they  may  have  plenty  of  pork,  ham,  and  bacon  to  eat  and  to  sell,  so 
the  Germans  raise  potatoes,  \\liile  the  Danes  raise  barley  or  use  the 
skinuned  milk  of  their  cattle  after  the  cream  has  been  taken  off  for 
butt(T. 

Cattle.— The  distribution  of  cattle.  Fig.  91,  affords  still  another 
interesting  illu;;t  ration  of  how  differently  people  utilize  their  resources. 
The  ma])  siiows  four  chief  cattle  areas:  two  are  the  gi-eat  cyclonic 
areas  of  the  United  States  and  western  Furojie  which  stand  out,  so 
])r()mincntly  in  many  other  lines;  a  third  is  on  the  i^iuatorial  Ixu'der 
of  the  southern  cyclonic  region  in  the  American  coinitries  of  Uruguay 
and  Argentina:  and  tiie  fourth  is  in  tropical  Java  anil  India. 


340        MAX'S    INFLATION   TO    VECKTATlOX    AND    ANIMALS 

Why  tiie  Cattle  of  India  Yield  so  Small  a  Return. — Let  us  hop:in 
with  Iiulia  and  see  liow  little  the  ik'()1)U'  exert  tlieniselves  in  cattle 
fanniiit:  and  how  little  they  get  from  it.  Althoufjh  India  has  an 
enormous  number  of  cattle,  it  has  few  in  proportion  to  the  population. 
A  score  of  other  countries  have  relatively  more.  The  Indian  cattle 
are  usetl  almost  entirely  for  jilowing  or  for  drawinp;  carts.  Few  are 
used  for  food.  Long  ago  the  nmiiber  of  animals  in  India  was  so  small 
that  there  was  great  difficulty  in  getting  enough  for  plowing.  Hence 
it  was  not  considered  right  to  kill  theiii,  and  finally  this  became  a 
strict  religious  prohibition  which  no  Hindu  dare  bicak  e\-en  in  the 
direst  need.  Only  Mohammedans  kill  and  eat  them,  and  most  of  the 
cattle  therefore  li\-e  on  and  on  and  die  of  old  age.  Thus  a  large  ])er- 
centage  of  those  in  India  are  too  old  to  be  of  much  value  except  for 
manure.  Most  of  the  cows  are  not  even  used  for  nulk.  This  is 
jjartly  because  the  gi'ass  is  poor.  If  the  cows  are  milked  the  >ield  is 
so  scanty  that  the  missionaries  call  them  "tea  cup"  cows.  More- 
over, the  people  have  so  Uttle  initiative  and  energy^  that  they  make  no 
effort  to  see  that  the  animals  are  better  fed,  and  that  the  breeds  are 
improved.  Even  when  the  cattle  of  India  die  manj-  of  the  hides  are 
not  used.  Thus  the  cattle  of  India  yi(4d  only  a  slight  return,  but 
this  is  as  much  as  is  warranted  l)y  the  slight  care  given  them. 

Why  the  Cattle  of  South  America  Yield  a  Moderate  Return.— The 
cattle  of  southern  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  especialh-  noilhern  Argentina, 
are  of  greater  use  than  those  of  India.  To  a  certain  extent  they  are 
employed  as  draft  animals,  although  horses  also  do  this  work,  but 
the  main  use  is  for  food  and  hides.  As  soon  as  they  are  large  enough 
tliey  are  slaughtered  for  export.  Rarely,  however,  are  they  used  for 
milk.  This  is  partly  because,  although  their  natural  food  is  b(>tter 
than  in  India  so  that  they  would  give  more  milk  if  ]irop(>rly  car(>d  for, 
the  ])am])as  grass  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  cooler  regions.  Still  more 
Irnportaiif  is  the  fact  that  the  peo])le  l)elie\-(>  that  it  does  not  pay  to 
care  for  milch  cows,  but  this  is  only  half  tru(\  On  many  a  cattle 
ranch  where  there  are  hundreds  of  cows  that  might  be  milked,  high 
prices  are  paid  for  condensed  milk  brought  fiom  the  United  States. 
In  the  more  cyclonic  parts  of  Argentina,  however,  conditions  are 
Ix'ginning  to  be  lik(^  those  in  the  Ignited  States,  and  Initter  and  casein 
are  ex])()rte<l. 

Why  the  Cattle  of  Cyclonic  Regions  Yield  a  Large  Return. — In 
the  cyclonic  regif)ns  of  western  1mu'o]x>  and  the  United  States  cattle 
are  far  more  useful  than  in  any  other  climatic  zone.  They  do  not  do 
much  plowing  or  iiauling,  to  be  sine,  since  they  are  too  slow  for  that. 
As  a  source  of  food,  however,  they  :ivv  vastly  more  important  than 
elsewhere.     \'ast  nujuix'rs  are  ke])!  as  milch  cows,  and  arc  tended  so 


MAN'S   WORK   IN   REGIONS  OF   CYCLONIC   STORMS       341 

carefully  that  farmers  are  sometimes  accused  of  looking  out  for  their 
cows  better  than  their  children.  Such  care  is  well  rewarded  by- 
abundant  supplies  of  milk,  cream,  butter,  and  cheese.  Some  of  the 
animals  that  are  not  needed  for  milk  are  killed  as  calves,  but  more  are 
allowed  to  gi'ow  up.  None  of  those  meant  primarily  for  food,  however, 
are  allowed  to  gi-ow  old.  but  all  are  fattened  and  killed  while  their 
meat  is  still  tender.  Not  only  are  the  hides  of  such  animals  used,  as 
in  parts  of  India,  and  the  hides,  hair,  and  meat  as  in  South  America, 
but  the  bones,  horns,  blood,  and  internal  organs  are  all  used  for  fer- 
tilizer, glue,  and  other  products.  Such  gi-eat  effort  in  taking  care 
of  the  cattle  for  milk,  manure,  meat,  fertilizer,  and  other  purposes, 
and  in  improving  the  breeds,  is  due  to  the  energy  of  the  people  of 
cyclonic  regions,  but  these  regions  also  have  other  advantages.  The 
cattle  raiser  in  places  like  Wisconsin  and  Holland,  for  example,  is 
favored  with  the  finest  kind  of  gi-ass  and  with  gi-eat  markets  close  at 
hand.  Thus  in  cattle  raising,  as  in  many  other  respects,  the  cyclonic 
regions  are  blessed  with  conditions  that  are  favorable  for  plants  and 
animals  as  well  as  for  man. 

How  the  Cyclonic  Regions  Compare  with  the  Rest  of  the  World 
in  Producing  Raw  Materials. — In  the  table  of  world  products,  the 
chief  raw  materials,  as  distinguished  from  foodstuffs  and  fuels,  are  as 
follows:  (1)  cotton;  (2)  iron;  (3)  wood;  (4)  hides;  (5)  wool;  (6)  cop- 
per; (7)  rubber;  (8)  silk;  (9)  lead;  (10)  zinc;  (11)  tin.  These 
materials  fall  into  two  gi'cat  classes:  (a)  five  mineral  products  the 
occurrence  of  which  has  nothing  to  do  with  climate,  and  which  are 
as  likely  to  occur  in  one  zone  as  another;  (h)  six  plant  or  animal 
products  which  can  be  raised  only  in  certain  regions  determined  by 
cHmate.  Let  us  see  where  each  class  comes  from  and  where  it  is 
used. 

Where  the  Metals  are  Mined  and  Used. — Among  the  five  most 
useful  metals,  four,  namely,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc,  are  so  widely 
distributed  that  each  climatic  zone  appeal's  to  have  an  abundant 
supply  stored  away  among  its  mountains.  Yet  look  at  Figs.  53  to  58 
and  see  where  the  world's  supply  comes  from.  All  are  produced 
overwhelmingly  in  cyclonic  regions.  Iron,  the  ores  of  which  are  by 
far  the  most  universally  distributed  over  the  earth's  surface,  is  the  one 
produced  most  exclusively  in  cyclonic  regions.  The  extraordinaiy 
leadership  of  the  cyclonic  regions  is  vividly  brought  out  by  compar- 
ing Fig.  53,  showing  where  iron  ores  are  known  to  exist  in  lai'gc  (]uan- 
tities,  with  Fig.  54  showing  where  iron  is  actually  mined. 

Tin  alone  among  the  five  most  useful  metals  occui-s  almost  wholly 
in  ()n(>  climatic  zone,  for  it  is  produced  mainly  in  Malaysia  and  Bolivia. 
Most  of  the   tin,   however,   is   now   mined   l)y   European  methods, 


342      MANS  ri:lati()X  to  \egetation  and  animals 

and  ]iracllc:illy  all  of  tho  product  is  slii]i])pd  to  cyclonic  rcp;ions. 
Witli  most  of  the  other  metals,  as  well  as  with  noii-iiietallic  mineral 
products  like  hrickclay,  sijiiilar  conditions  jncx  ail.  If  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  ores  is  limited,  as  in  the  case  of  ^old,  silver,  and  mercury, 
the  mines  in  other  regions  are  usually  run  by  people  from  the  cyclonic 
areas.  If  the  minerals  are  widely  distributed  in  all  zones,  as  are 
aluminum  ores,  ]X)tt(>r3^  elays,  and  roadbuildiug  stones,  they  are 
exploited  pre-eminently  in  the  cyclonic  areas.  Because  of  their 
greater  energy  the  people  of  cyclonic  regions  not  only  have  developed 
their  own  mineral  resources  with  ahnost  reckless  raiiidity,  but  have 
reached  out  and  procured  for  their  own  use  the  best  of  all  that  occui-s 
elsewhere. 

Where  the  Vegetable  and  Animal  Raw  Materials  are  Produced 
and  Used. — The  six  must  useful  non-metallic  raw  materials,  as  wc 
have  seen,  are  cotton,  wood,  hides,  wool,  rul)l)'r,  and  silk.  Unlike 
the  metals,  these  cannot  possibly  be  produced  in  most  parts  of  the 
world.  Cotton  is  a  product  of  monsoon  and  subtropical  climates. 
Good  wood  is  common  in  four  of  the  world's  main  regions  of  climate 
and  vegetation,  namely  the  equatorial  rain  forest,  the  tropical  jungle, 
the  deciduous  forest,  and  the  coniferous  forest.  A  scattered  suppl}^ 
moreover,  is  found  in  tropical  scrub,  in  savannas,  in  subtropical  dry 
forests,  and  in  the  irrigated  parts  of  deserts.  Nevertheless  far  the 
best  kinds  of  wood  for  ordinary  use  arc  the  larger  conifers  especially 
the  pines,  which  are  both  easily  worked  and  durable.  These  grow 
best  on  the  southern  bordcre  of  the  great  coniferous  forests  and  in 
scattered  areas  on  mountains  or  in  special  soils  farther  south.  Hence 
they  are  largely  a  cyclonic  product.  North  of  the  cyclonic  regions 
the  coniferous  forest  is  relatively  stunted  antl  is  valuable  chiefly  for 
piilji  wood  for  im]>er. 

Wool  ami  hiilcs  both  come  from  animals  which  naturally  live  in 
tiie  grasslands  of  tlu^  prairies,  steppes,  and  savannas,  ami  hence  are 
ada]ited  to  many  climatic  regions.  Rubber  is  the  only  genuinely 
tro])ical  article  on  our  list,  while  silk,  like  cotton,  belongs  naturally  to 
monsoon  and  subtro]Mcal  climates.  Thus  no  one  of  the  six  most 
useful  non-metallic  raw  materials  is  primarily  a  ])roduct  of  cyclonic 
regions,  but  wood,  wool,  and  hides  can  be  produced  there  as  well  a3 
anywhere.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  they  are  jiroduced  in  those 
regions  far  in  excess  of  all  other  regions.  ?Tow  t  rue  t  his  is  may  be  seen 
from  Figs.  96  and  91,  since  wool  and  hides  iia1urall>'  come  from  the 
places  where  sheep  and  cattle  are  most  r.umerous.  ^Die  same  is  true 
of  silk,  the  other  animal  jM'oduct  on  our  list.  "\\'e  thiidv  of  it  as  a 
produit  of  warm  regions,  but  the  vast  bulk  of  the  world's  silk  supply 
c<.)mes  from  two  cyclonic  regions.  ,Ia))aii  and  northern  Italy.     The 


MAN'S  WORK  IN   REGIONS  OF  CYCLONIC  STORMS       343 

people  of  these  cyclonic  regions  have  taken  silk  worms,  just  as  others 
have  taken  cattle  and  sheep,  and  have  developed  typc^s  that  thriA-e  in 
climates  somewhat  cooler  or  moister  than  those  where  the  anmials 
originally  lived. 

Rubber  and  cotton  illustrate  the  dominance  of  the  cyclonic  r(>gions 
quite  as  forcibly  as  do  any  other  products.  Rubber  does  this  in  the 
same  way  as  tin,  for  although  it  is  a  purely  tropical  product,  it  is 
practically  all  exported  to  a  few  cyclonic  coimtries  and  there  man- 
ufactured. The  United  States  consumes  over  half  the  world's 
rubber.  Cotton  ir.ustrates  the  matter  in  nnich  the  same  way.  Fig. 
98  shows  where  the  world's  cotton  crop  is  grown.  It  is  clearly  limited 
to  fairly  warm  regions.  But  compare  this  with  Fig.  44  which  shows 
where  the  cotton  is  woven  into  cloth.  Evidently  the  greater  part 
of  the  cotton  crop  is  carried  to  cyclonic  regions  and  there  manu- 
factured. 

Why  Crops  Improve  as  They  are  Moved  toward  Cyclonic  Regions. 
— Cotton  shows  the  eft'ect  of  the  energy  of  the  i)e()i)l('  of  cyclonic 
regions  in  still  another  way.  The  average  jdeld  of  the  cro]!  per  acre 
in  the  United  States  displays  a  general  tendency  to  increase  toward 
the  north.  Near  the  northern  In  nit  in  southern  ^lissouri  and  Yu- 
ginia  the  yield  per  acre  is  a])out  twice  as  great  as  in  Florida  and 
Louisiana.  Like  many  other  cro]:)s,  cotton  naturally  grows  bc^st 
in  about  the  middle  of  its  geographical  range.  We  see  this  in  all  wild 
plants.  The  best  pine  trees,  for  example,  grow  neither  in  the  far 
north  nor  the  far  south;  the  holh^  is  a  little  bush  in  New  P^ngland,  it 
becomes  a  great  tree  in  the  Southern  States,  where  it  thrives  best; 
while  still  farther  south  it  again  dmiinishes  in  vigor.  So,  too,  with 
thousands  of  other  wild  ]ilants,  both  great  and  small.  Yet  among 
cultivated  plants  derived  originally  from  warmer  climes,  not  only 
cotton,  but  corn,  wlu^at,  potatoes,  oranges,  grape  fruit,  and  others 
gi'ow  best  at  their  northern  limit.  In  othc^"  words,  \A'hen  these  crops 
are  gradually  moved  toward  the  regions  where  man  is  most  com- 
petent their  productivity  and  (luality  improve  because  of  the  care 
given  them,  although  natin-ally  they  would  not  thrive  in  their  new 
homes. 

The  Supremacy  of  the  Cyclonic  Regions  in  Transportation. — 
Figs.  109  and  33  illusti-ate  the  concentration  of  hoi-ses  and  of  railways 
in  the  cyclonic  regions.  How  far  is  this  due  to  other  factoi-s  than 
climate?  Plains,  especially  gi'asslands,  ccit ;iinly  have  an  effect  on  the 
distribution  of  hoi-ses,  for  there  are  more  lioi-ses  in  the  grassy  plains  of 
the  central  United  States,  eastern  Argentine,  and  southwestern  Kussia 
than  in  the  neighboring  regions.  lUit  in  the  gi'assy  plains  of  the 
non-cyclonic  regions  of  the  Orinoco,  and  the  Sudan,  thcvc  :ir(>  ]irac- 


3-l-t        MANS   lUlLATION    TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

tirally  none.  So,  too,  railrouls  an'  numerous  throughout,  the  })lains 
of  cyclonic  rcjjions,  hut  arc  ahsent  in  the  still  p:i*eater  plains  of  the 
Amazon  Basin,  nortiiern  Canada,  northern  Siberia,  and  Aral)ia. 
The  density  of  tlu'  ])o))ulation  also  has  an  elTcct  on  the  distribution 
of  both  hoi-ses  and  railways,  ])ut  how  important  is  this?  Comjiare 
Figs.  lO'.t  and  .'J.S  with  Fif^.  37,  showing  the  distril)ution  of  ])()])ula- 
tion.  China,  Java,  and  India  are  among  the  blackest  areas  on  the 
pojMilation  map,  yet  there  is  only  one  mile  of  railway  for  eveiy  30 
square  miles  of  territory  in  Java,  50  in  India,  and  220  in  (  liina,  while 
there  is  a  mile  of  railway  for  every  11  scjuarc  miU^s  in  the  United 
States,  8  in  France,  6  in  Holland,  and  o  in  Great  Britain.  Morecver, 
both  Java  and  India  would  have  a  railway  net  even  less  dense  than 
that  of  C'liina  if  they  had  not  received  railwaj'-  systems  from  their 
Dutch  and  Mnglish  rulei-s.  Thus  it  appears  that  while  relief,  vegeta- 
tion, and  density  of  po])ulation  all  have  some  effect  on  the  develop- 
ment of  means  of  transjiortation,  the  main  effect  is  due  to  the  cy- 
clonic ('Innate.  In  cyclonic  regions  the  people  have  plenty  of  work 
for  h()i*ses  and  plenty  t)f  freight  for  railways,  and  they  also  have  the 
ability  and  energy  to  improve  the  breeds  of  horses  and  to  invent  and 
build  railways. 

If  we  had  maps  showing  the  world  distribution  of  good  roads, 
automobiles,  trolley  lines,  or  air])lanes,  they  would  all  show  the  same 
pre-eminence  of  the  cyclonic  regions. 

Where  the  World's  Manufacturing  is  Done. — If  a  country  is  to 
be  ])rominent  in  manufacturing,    there  must  be  (1)  coal  for  i^ower, 

(2)  iron  for  machineiy,  but  much  the  most  hnportant  reiiuisite  is 

(3)  inventive  energetic  people  to  manage  the  factories  and  run  the 
machineiy.  V\o  have  already  seen  that  though  iron  ore  is  found  in 
pi^actically  all  parts  of  the  world,  it  is  extensively  mined  and  smelted 
only  in  cyclonic  n^gions.  Coal  follows  the  same  rule.  Although 
coal  is  less  abundant  in  tropical  countries  than  elsewhere,  it  is  found 
in  all  the  climatic  zones,  as  appeal's  in  Fig.  GO.  Some  of  the  finest  of 
all  de]X)sits  are  in  ( 'hina  and  Indo-China.  Yet  almost  all  the  mining 
is  done  in  the  cyclonic  regions,  as  is  clearly  evident  from  Fig.  (31. 
Wliat  little  coal  mining  is  earned  on  elsewhere,  as  in  Spitzbcrgen,  is 
often  done  in  order  to  bring  more  coal  to  the  cyclonic  regions.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  amount  of  coal  mining  outside  of  cyclonic  regions 
is  so  small  that  coal  is  carried  in  large  quantities  from  the  United 
States  and  esjx'cially  I'Jigland  to  remote  parts  of  I  lie  earth  like  ( 'hina, 
even  when  those  regions  have  supplies  of  their  own  which  are  not  yet 
developed. 

The  ])resence  of  energetic  people,  as  we  have  seen,  is  due  largely  to 
the  stimulating  elTect  of  the  varied  clunate  of  cyclonic  regions.     Let  us 


MAN'S   WORK   IN   REGIONS  OF   CYCLONIC   STORMS       345 


X\{j        MAX>   KKLATIOX   TO   \EC;ETATlOX   AND   ANIMALS 

soo  how  tliis  cliinatic  condition,  with  tlio  liolp  of  coal  and  iron,  has 
caused  tlic  world's  manufacturing  to  be  ilistriljuted.  Fig.  110  shows 
the  ]K'rccntage  of  the  inhabitants  who  are  engaged  in  manufacturing 
in  various  regions.  The  (hirker  the  shading  the  gi*eater  the  jjercent- 
age.  Notice  that  there  are  two  prominent  thirk  areas,  one  in  the 
eastern  United  States,  and  the  other  in  northwestern  luirope.  Each 
is  in  tlie  lieart  of  one  of  the  world's  two  main  cj'clonic  regions.  Be- 
yond their  limits  the  amount  of  manufacturing  rapidly  diminishes, 
so  that  large  parts  of  the  map  are  unsluuled.  The  only  other  places 
wlK>re  the  shading  again  becomes  noticeal)le  are  a  few  smaller  cyclonic 
areas  like  ,Ia]mn. 

Why  Cyclonic  Countries  are  the  Worlds  Chief  Markets. — Strange 
as  it  may  seem,  manufacturing  countrie;;  buy  from  one  another  far 


In;.   111. — Purchases  of  the  United  States  Abroad. 


more  than  trom  other  climatic  regions,  and  their  sales  are  made  in  the 
same  regions,  luigland,  for  exam])le,  does  t(Mi  or  twelve  times  as  much 
Imsiness  with  the  100,000,000  people  of  llie  Initetl  States  as  whh 
more  than  three  tijnes  as  many  in  China,  liven  with  the  3()(),0()(),000 
peojjle  of  its  own  chief  colony  in  Imlia  it  does  only  about  as  much 
business  as  with  the  40,000,000  ])eople  of  France.  The  purchases  and 
sales  of  tihe  United  States  in  foreign  countries  are  shown  in  ligs.  Ill 
and  112.  if  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  the  ;j(K),()()(),000 
pc()))lc  ill  I  lie  Ic.'uliiig  nations  of  cyclonic  regions  were  cut  ofT,  two- 
tliinls  of  oiu"  comniei-<'('  would  be  gone  in  s))ite  of  the  fad  thai  there 
woul.l  still  be  1,20(),00(),()()()  peojjle  with  whom  to  trade 

I'usiiicss  men  continually  urge  the  expansion  of  oiii'  tiade  witi'. 
China,   Sibo'ia,   and  es])ecially   Latin   America.     Tluy  are  right  in 


MAN'S  WORK  IN  REGIONS  OF  CYCLONIC  STORMS        317 

thoory,  for  those  countries,  particularly  the  ones  that  are  lro])ical, 
produce  many  useful  products  wliich  our  own  country  cannot  furnish. 
It  is  far  more  important  for  us  as  a  nation  to  be  able  to  purchase  plenty 
of  tropical  rubber,  quinine,  coffee,  and  tin,  which  we  cannot  possibly 
produce  in  our  own  country,  than  to  he  able  to  buy  European  cloth, 
machineiy,  or  dyes,  which  arc  not  veiy  different  from  our  own,  and 
which  we  could  perfectly  well  make  ourselves.  Yet  in  spite  of  this 
it  is  far  more  difficult  to  add  a  billion  dollai-s  to  our  trade  with  tropical 
America  than  to  add  the  same  sum  to  oin-  trade  with  cyclonic  Europe. 
The  reason  is  largely  the  difference  in  energy.  The  tropical  people 
do  not  exert  themselves  to  produce  goods  that  we  want,  nor  do  they 
earn  enough  to  be  able  to  buy  large  quantities  of  the  goods  that  we 


Fici.   112. — Sales  of  the  United  States  Abroad. 

make,  no  matter  how  attractive  such  goods  may  be.  Hence  most  of 
the  world's  trade,  as  well  as  most  of  its  other  activity,  centers  in  the 
cyclonic  regions. 

How  the  Cyclonic  Regions  Lead  the  World. — The  people  of  the 
cyclonic  regions  rank  so  far  above  those  of  other  parts  of  the  world 
that  they  are  the  natural  leaders.  For  mstance,  the  form  of  demo- 
cratic government  which  was  worked  out  in  France  and  England, 
but  which  was  fii-st  really  tried  in  the  United  States,  is  the  form  which 
every  country  in  the  world  is  gradually  trjang  to  adopt.  The  con- 
stitutions of  all  the  South  .American  countries  as  well  as  of  Cliina  are 
directly  modeled  on  that  of  the  United  States,  while  those  of  other 
covmtries  have  been  greatly  influenced  by  it.  Again  the  inventions 
of  cyclonic  regions,  especially  the  United  States  and  England,  have 
led  the  way  to  the  ufc  of  machinery  wherever  the  steam  engine, 
telegi'aph,  and  sucli  devices  as  the  sewing  iiKicliiiic  \\ii\e  gone.     So, 


34S        MANS    HKLATIOX    TO   VEGETATION'    AND   ANIMALS 

too,  the  scioiu'o  and  litoraliiro  writton  in  Knfjlish,  Fronch,  and  Gor- 
man aiv  translated  into  other  huijiiui^cs  and  servo  as  models  in  (>very 
])ar1  of  the  v.'orld.  In  ihe  same  w  a>-  the  ])('(i])le  of  Asia  look  to  .lajjan 
as  the  k'ader  who  is  showinji;  them  how  to  put  themselves  on  an 
equality  with  the  countries  inhabited  ])y  the  white  raee.  In  art, 
music,  philoso])hy,  and  other  higher  elements  of  civilization  the 
enersTN'  of  the  cyclonic  regions  likewise  makes  them  the  leaders  of  the 
workl. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  A.  The  Abstract  of  the  United  States  Census  gives  a  tal)le  of  illiteracy 

among  native  whites.  On  an  outhne  map  of  the  United  Stat-is  insert 
the  figures  there  given  and  draw  smoothly  curved  hnes  at  intervals  of 
5,  10,  lo,  etc.  Shade  the  map  so  that  the  best  areas  will  be  dark  and 
the  worst  light.  What  kind  of  relation  do  you  detect  between  your 
map  and  Figs.  37,  85,  86,  104,  109,  110?  Exi)lain. 
B.  Draw  a  similar  map  of  illiteracy  among  colored  people,  llow  far  does 
this  resemble  the  map  of  illiteracy  among  native  whites?     A\'hy? 

2.  The  following  table  shows  the  average  annual  death  rate  in  Europe  for  (5  to 
10  years  inunediately  before  the  Great  War.  Except  where  enclosed  in  paren- 
theses the  figures  have  been  corrected  according  to  a  "standard  population," 
that  is,  allowance  has  been  made  for  the  proportion  of  children,  old  people,  and 
so  on.  From  the  figures  make  a  map  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  preceding  exer- 
cise, drawing  your  lines  at  death  rates  of  14,  17  and  22.  Compare  your  map  with 
Figs.  2!),  38,  61,  81,  85,  89,  105  and  112.  Explain  whatever  relationshijis  you 
detect,  and  state  your  conclusions  as  to  the  connection  between  health  and  each 
of  the  other  conditions  illustrated  in  these  mai)s  and  in  those  mentioned  in  Plxer- 
cisc  1. 

Annual  Death  Rate  in  Europe  1904-1913 

Austria 21.8  France 16.6  Rumania (24.7) 

liclgium 15.9  Germany 18.0  Russia (28.9) 

Bosnia  and  Ilerze-  Ilung.ary 24.3  Scotland 16.7 

govina (26.7)  Iri'huid 15.1  Serbia 23.1 

Bulgaria 22.4  Italy IS. 9  Spain (22.8) 

Denmark 12.4  Netherlands 13.5  Sweden 12.0 

EnglaiKJ 15. -1  Norway 119  Switzerland 15.8 

Finland 15.7  Portugal (20 . 5) 

3.  Take  one  country  from  each  of  the  groups  mentioned  below,  and  in  the 
Statesman's  Yearl)ook,  the  U.  S.  Reports  on  Conunerce  and  Navigation,  or  the 
encyclopa'dia,  fiml  figures  for  its  foreign  trade:  {<i}  Britain,  France,  Germany, 
Holland;  {h)  Rumania,  Hu.ssia,  Bulgaria,  ICgyj)!;  (c)  Siam,  lOcuador,  I'eru,  Belgian 
Congo;  {(t)  Argentina,  Chile,  Union  of  South  Africa,  New  Zealand.  For  each  of 
the  countries  thus  (;ho.sen  draw  maps  like  Figs.  Ill  and  112.  Write  an  account 
of  the  more  notable  resemblances  and  differences  among  the  four  ma])s  and  of 
the  geographical  conditions  which  give  rise  to  theni. 


MAN'S   WORK   IX   REGIONS   OF   CYCLONIC   STORMS       349 

4.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  select  some  one  country  and  find  the  figures 
for  its  trade  with  each  of  the  other  main  countries.  Combine  the  imports  and 
exports  and  form  a  table,  thus" 


FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  (COUNTRY  CHOSEN  BY  STUDENT) 


A 

B 

C 

D 

Names  of 

other 
countries. 

Total  trade  with  (country 
chosen  by  student). 

(Express  this  in  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  dollars, 
pounds,  francs,  or  what- 
ever unit  your  tables  hap- 
pen to  use.) 

Total  population 
of     other     coun- 
tries in  hundreds 
of  thousands. 

Trade    per    capita 
of     other     coun- 
tries with  (coun- 
try    chosen     by 
student )    i.e.,    B 
divided  by  C. 

Austria  etc. 

Insert  the  figures  of  column  D  in  their  proper  places  on  a  map  of  the  world. 
Draw  smoothlj^  curved  lines  to  divide  the  world  into  about  five  zones  according 
to  the  per  capita  trade  of  their  inhabitants  with  the  country  you  have  chosen. 
Shade  the  chosen  country  black  and  the  other  zones  with  shades  proportional  to 
their  trade  with  the  chosen  country. 

Study  your  own  map  and  three  or  four  others.  Write  j'our  conclusions  as  to 
the  effect  on  foreign  trade  of  («)  distance;  [b)  relief;  (c)  waterways;  (d)  soil  and 
minerals,   and    (e)    climate. 

5.  Obtain  a  list  of  all  the  countries  that  took  part  in  the  Great  War.  On  an 
outline  map  of  the  world  shade  heavih'  all  those  that  plaj^ed  a  really  important 
part  in  proportion  to  their  population.  Shade  moderately  those  that  took  some 
part,  but  did  not  do  a  great  deal.  Shade  lightly  those  that  declared  war,  but  took 
no  real  part.  Compare  your  map  with  Figs.  85  and  86.  How  do  you  explain 
the  resemblances  and  difTerenccs? 

6.  For  each  of  the  world's  chief  jiroducts.  as  given  in  the  table  near  the  begin- 
ning of  tliLs  chapter,  write  a  list  of  from  two  to  five  countries  whore  the  ])roduct  in 
question  is  i)roduced  in  especially  large  (|uantities  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion. Use  commercial  maps  in  geographies  or  atlases.  On  an  outline  map  of 
the  world  print  the  name  of  the  product  in  each  of  the  countries  where  it  is  espe- 
cially important.  Count  the  number  of  names  in  each  country  and  arrange  the 
countries  of  the  world  in  (ndcr  according  lo  the  number  of  names.  Discuss  the 
five  covuitries  that  stand  higliest  on  your  list,  and  give  the  geographical  reasons 
for  theii-  positiun,    Iij  tUc  aume  \vay  dJ:>cuss  tliK  live  cuuutiics  that  stand  lowest. 


CHAPTI'R  XIX 

THE  WORLD'S  DIET 

What  Constitutes  a  Good  Diet. — The  coiiditions  of  agriculture 
ami  civilization  discussed  in  ])i-cvious  cliaijlcis  dctcniiiiic  llic  kind  of 
food  tiiat  ix'o])lc  oat.  The  food  has  uiuch  to  do  with  hetdth  and 
strength.  A  good  diet  must  contain  ihicc  main  elements — carbo- 
hj'-drates,  fats,  and  pi'iitcids.  ('(irholinilrali s  ai'c  substances  sudi  as 
starch  and  sugar,  which,  hke/a/.s  are  composed  of  carbon,  hydi-ogen, 
and  oxygen.  The  carbon  is  slowly  burneil  in  our  bodies,  and  thus 
gives  us  warmth  and  energy.  Proteids  are  substances  such  as  cheese, 
meat,  and  fish,  containing  nitrogen.  They  are  necessaiy  b(>cause 
without  them  the  body  cannot  build  new  tissues  and  rejiair  its  con- 
tinual waste.  An  ordinary'  adult  man  engaged  on  ordinary  woik 
requires  about  eighteen  ounces  of  carbohydrates  or  fats  and  4  to  4', 
ounces  of  proteids  ])er  day.  For  children,  sick  jieople,  or  those  who 
are  working  very  hai'd,  the  amount  is  dilTcicnl ,  but  in  general  the 
carboliydrates  and  fats  should  \)o  four  or  i\\c  timers  as  abundant  as 
the  ))roteids. 

In  addition  to  the  three  main  food  substances  there  is  ncvd  of 
smaller  (luantities  of  salts,  vitamines,  and  the  acids  of  fruits.  A  good 
diet  should  contain  not  only  the  right  amount  of  these  and  of  carl)o- 
liydrates,  fats,  and  ])roteids,  but  should  vaiy  fi'oni  day  to  day  so 
that  ])eopl<>  may  not  get  tired  of  it,  and  may  be  sure  to  get  all  th(> 
needed  elements.  Aside  from  the  prosperous  inhabitants  of  advaiice(l 
coimtries,  however,  the  majority  of  (lie  world's  jieople  live  largely  on 
a  few  kinds  of  food. 

A  Table  of  Food  Values. — The  value  of  the  food  uscmI  in  different 
]iarts  of  the  woild  may  be  judged,  from  the  table  given  lu'low.  Col- 
unm  A  sliows  tlie  kind  of  food;  B,  (',  and  1)  show  what  i)ercentage 
of  each  kind  is  waste  material  like  (B)  skin  and  bones,  (C)  water, 
or  (D)  mineral  matter,  such  as  salt.  Colwiim  F.  gives  the  ])ercentage 
of  a<'tual  food  materials  in  the  various  articles  as  we  buy  them  in  the 
market.  It  will  b(>  seen  that  this  varies  from  oidy  9  per  c(Mit  in  beets 
which  contain  much  water  and  a  good  deal  of  waste,  to  *.)()  pi  r  cent  in 
oatmeal  and  100  per  cent  in  sugar. 

Columns  F  and  (!  should  be  considered  together.  ( 'olunm  F 
shows  how  many  ])omids  of  a  given  ;irlicle  would  liave  to  be  ])ur- 
chased  in  order  to  get  from  it  \\  ounces  of  i)roteids,  tlie  daily  nnjuire- 

350 


THE   WORLD'S   DIET 


351 


NUTRIENT  VALUE  OF  FOODS 


Kind  of  Food. 


Animal  Products. 

Fish  (Fresh  Cod) 

(Fresh  Mackerel) 

Eggs 

Veal 

Beef 

Chicken 

Mutton 

Pork  (Fresh) 

Bacon 

Cheese 

Milk 

Butter 

Cereals. 

Oatmeal 

Wheat  (Graham) 

Wheat  (White  Flour) .  .  . 

Corn  Meal 

Rice    

Rye  Flour 

Rye  Bread 

Wheat  Bread  (Graham).. 

Wheat  Bread  (White)... 

Vegetables 

Peas  (Dried) 

Beans  (Dried) 

Beets 

Potatoes 

Sweet  Potatoes 

Fruits. 

Grapes 

Bananas 

Apples 

Nuts 

Almonds 

Walnuts 

Chestnuts 

Sugar 


^■2 


30 

45 

11 

17 

15 

26 

15 

15 

8 

0 

0 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 

0 

20 

20 

20 

25 
35 
25 

45 

58 

10 

0 


C. 


58 
40 
66 
57 
53 
47 
44 
45 
17 
34 
87 
11 


11 
12 
13 
12 
13 
36 
36 
35 

10 
13 
70 
63 
55 

58 
49 
63 

3 

1 

38 

0 


D. 


11 
14 
22 
25 
31 
26 
40 
39 
71 
62 
12 
86 

90 

87 
87 
86 
88 
86 
62 
62 
64 

87 
83 
9 
16 
24 

17 
15 
12 

51 

40 

45 

100 


Sj=^ 


2.8 


2, 
1 
1, 
2. 
2. 
2.1 
2.5 
1.1 
8.5 
28.2 

1.7 
2.1 
2.5 
3.1 
3.5 
6.6 
3.1 
3.2 
3.1 

1.1 

1.2 

21.6 

15.6 

20.1 

28.1 
35.2 
93.8 

2.4 
4.1 
5.4 


^3 

"^  o.S 


Pi* 


564.0 

26.8 

12.2 

12.2 

7.4 

9.2 

6.8 

4.3 

1.8 

3.3 

12.5 

1.3 


.8 

.5 

.5 

.5 

.4 

1.4 

2.1 

2.1 

2.1 


1.8 
1.8 
14.4 
7.6 
5.0 

7.2 

7.7 

10.1 

2.8 
3.4 

2.8 


H. 

II    m 


-226.0 
-9.6 
-5.8 
-6 
-4 
-4 
-3 
_2 

+  1 
-3 
-1 


8 
4 
4 
4 
0 
4 
0 
5 
+21.6 


-1.1 

+  1.4 
+  1.7 
+2.1 
+2.5 
+4.7 
+  1.5 
+  1.5 
+  1.5 

-1.6 
-1.5 
+  1.5 

+2.1 
+4.0 

+3.9 

+4.6 
+9.3 

-1.2 

+  1.2 
+  1.9 


Noprotei|d8    1  .  1 


*  Less  than  half  of  1  per  cent. 


3r)2        MANS    JJKLATIOX    TO    VKC.F.TATloX    AXl)    ANIMALS 


c    i 


THE   WORLD'S   DIET 


353 


r 


c    = 


c    '-5 


l^    S 


351        MAN'S  i;]:i,Ari()X  to  vKcKTA'nox  Axn  animals 

mont  of  an  active  adult  man.  Column  (1  shows  how  manj'  pounds 
would  1)0  nopdcd  in  order  to  j^ct  tlie  daily  reciuinMuent  of  18  ounces 
of  carbohydrates  or  fats.  In  many  cases  a  sufficient  sujiiih'  of  both 
types  of  food  could  not  be  p;ot  from  a  sinjilc  article  without  eatinjj;  an 
enormous  (pinntily.  For  itistnncc,  sui)p()se  a  piM-son  has  to  live  for  a 
while  on  nothing  but  fresh  cod,  as  often  happens  to  llie  Lalirador 
fisherman.  About  2.5  pounds  of  fresh  fish  would  sui)])ly  the  lu'cded 
proteids.  An  ordinary  person  could  easily  eat  this  quantity  in  a  day. 
Codfish  are  so  lean,  however,  that  564  pounds  would  have  to  be  eaten 
to  get  enough  carbohydrates  and  fats, 

■  Or  suppose  a  Korean  peasant  has  no  siipi)lies  except  dried  beans, 
would  he  be  as  well  off  as  a  Turkoman  noniad  east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  who  has  no  food  except  cheese?  About  1.2  pounds  of  dried  beans 
and  1.1  of  cheese  would  be  needed  for  pi'oteids,  while  1.8  pounds  of 
beans  would  have  to  be  eaten  to  get  enough  carbonaceous  material,  and 
over  3  of  cheese.  Therefore  the  Korean  with  legumes  like  beans  and 
peas  is  better  off  than  the  nomad  with  cheese.  In  order  to  get  enough 
carbohydrates  or  fats  from  cheese  the  stomach  would  have  to  be  over- 
loaded with  three  times  as  nuich  proteid  as  it  needs  and  would  thus 
be  injured. 

In  Colunm  H  the  whole  matter  is  sununed  up  !)>■  means  of  index 
numbers.  A  value  of  1  means  that  an  article  contains  the  I'ight 
proportion  of  proteids  and  car])onaceous  materials.  Anything 
between  1  and  2  forms  a  fairl}'  good  article  of  diet  even  liy  ilsell'.  A 
plus  sign  means  that  carbohydrates  or  fats  predominate  and  a  minus 
sign  indicates  an  excess  of  proteids.  In  a  good  diet  th(>  ]ilns  articles, 
carbonaceous,  should  balance  the  miiuis  one.;  with  much  proteids. 
Thus  beef  just  about  balances  swe(>t  potatoes,  and  chicken  balances 
bananas.  On  the  other  hand,  a  little  butter  with  its  great  predom- 
inance of  fat  balances  a  large  amount  of  beans  with  their  slight  exce'ss 
of  jjroteid. 

The  Unbalanced  Diet  of  Frigid  Regions. — Let  us  now  us(>  tlu^  table 
as  a  test  of  the  ordinary  diet  in  vai'ious  ]iarts  of  tlu>  woild.  Con- 
sider first  the  meat  diet  of  frigid  regions.  The  Eskimos  seem  to  revel 
in  fat.  When  Ihey  can  get  it  they  litei'ally  stuff  th(Mns(>lves.  Sitting 
on  the  liooi-  of  theif  dark,  smoky  huts  lliey  seize  it  with  tlieii'  hands 
and  ciam  it  into  their  mouths  so  greedily  thai  their  faces  shine  with 
fat  and  theii'  clothing  is  stre;d>;ed  with  it.  Tlie  I'^skimo  wants  much 
fat  liec.ause  he  needs  internal  fuel  to  keep  him  waiiu  in  his  far  northern 
climate. 

Sometimes  the  l\skimos  ai'o  ol)liged  to  live  foi-  long  ]i(M"iods  on 
nothing  but  fish,  which  .are  laigel\-  ])rotei(l.  At  such  times  the  ]K)or 
Eskimo  .and   his   famil\-   eat    and   eat,   but    are   not    satisfied.     Their 


THE   WORLD'S   DIET  355 

bodies  clamor  for  carljoh^'drates,  the  intestines  become  deranged,  and 
many  Eskimos  die  from  diseases  induced  in  this  way.  To  the  dis- 
advantage^ of  too  much  fish  and  meat  is  added  the  ^vciit  disadvantage 
of  no  cer(>als,  v(\geta])les,  or  fruits.  Accoi'cUnii'ly  the  pe()i)l('  of  the 
frigid  North  cannot  be  expected  to  have  th(>  enchu'ancc  and  stamina 
of  the  white  man  with  his  varied  and  nutritious  cHet. 

Diet  of  Equatorial  Rain-forests. — Lc^t  us  now  take  a  long  jump 
from  regions  of  perpetual  cold  to  those  of  perpetual  heat,  'ilie 
tropical  rain-forest  is  subject  to  a  disadvantage  like  that  of  the  fiigid 
regions;  that  is,  the  people  often  eat  only  one  kind  of  food  foi'  weeks 
or  even  months  at  a  time.  For  instance,  where  l:)ananas  can  be 
procured  they  eat  them  day  after  day.  Yet  althougli  they  gorge 
themselves  they  cannot  get  enough  proteid  from  that  source,  for  that 
would  require  from  seventy  to  eighty  bananas  a  day  for  eacii  person. 
Many  equatorial  people  have  protruding  al^domens  cither  because  of 
the  great  l)ulk  of  th(>  Ixmanas  that  they  have  to  stuff  down  in  the  (effort 
to  satisfy  their  hunger  or  more  prol)a])ly  from  the  diseases  thus 
induced.  The  poor  quality  of  the  food  in  time  ruins  their  (Ugestion. 
Equatorial  people  also  suffer  because  their  meals  are  not  regular.  Not 
only  do  they  eat  at  any  hour  when  they  feel  like  it,  but  when  they  find 
plenty  of  food  they  gorge  themselves,  and  then  go  hungry  for  days. 

Diet  of  Tropical  Jungles. — In  the  parts  of  the  tropical  jungle  w  here 
agriculture  is  simplest  the  food  is  scarcely  l^etter  than  in  the  equatorial 
forest.  The  crops  are  such  roots  as  the  sweet  potato  and  yam,  and 
such  fruits  as  the  cocoamit  and  ])ananas.  In  such  a  tliet  starcli  or 
sugar  predominates  so  largely  that  people^  eat  ravenously,  l)ut  even 
thus  do  not  get  enough  proteids.  Although  an  occasional  pig,  fowl, 
or  goat  is  eaten,  and  some  fish  are  caught  in  the  streams,  this 
happens  at  such  rare  intervals  that  much  harm  is  done  in  the  mean- 
time. 

Where  the  jungle  peo])le  raise  corn,  rice,  or  millet  the  diet  becomes 
better  than  in  jungl(>  regions  with  more  primitive  agricultui-e.  Notice 
in  Column  H  of  the  tal)le  that  corn  and  rice  luv  only  about  half  as 
starchy  as  bananas  and  sweet  potatoes.  Mihet  is  not  (niite  as  good 
as  corn  and  rice,  although  it  is  wickdy  eatcni  l)ecause  it  can  easily  be 
raised  in  wai-m  places  where  the  rainy  season  is  short.  All  three 
grains,  however,  have  the  advantage  of  not  containing  a  great  amount 
of  water  or  other  waste  materials — only  ]'.i  pei-  cent  as  apjicars  in 
Colunm  C.  Therefore  they  do  not  ov(>rburd(>n  tli(^  stomach  and  cause 
digestive  troubles,  as  does  the  mon^  piiniitiAc  tropicnl  diet.  Never- 
theless, they  contain  twice  as  nuich  starch  as  is  advisal)le.  More- 
over, the  lack  of  certain  vitamin(>s  rcMuUM's  those  who  eat  such  a  diet 
liable  to  certain  (Hseascs  such  as  l)eri-lieii.     In  the  majoritv  of  well- 


35()       MAN'S  i;i:i.\  TioN  TO  \-K( ;i:T.\'n(>\  and  animals 

populated  tropical  rc(j;ions  mciit  is  usually  so  scarce  and  expensive 
that  it  forms  no  apj^reciable  part  of  the  diet,  and  there  is  nothing  to 
counteract  the  starchiness  of  the  other  foods.  In  spite  of  this  the 
tropical  people  who  raise  corn,  millet,  and  especially  rice,  are  not  only 
benefited  by  the  necessity  of  steady  work,  as  we  have  seen,  but  by  the 
fact  that  their  diet  is  better  than  that  of  more  primitive  people. 

Diet  of  Monsoon  Regions. — In  monsoon  regions  like  China,  for 
example,  the  conunonest  food  is  rice  or  millet.  (See  Fig.  95,  Rice 
IMa]).)  Since  tlu^se  grains  are  starchy,  the  ]~)eople  make  great  efforts 
to  satisfy  Ihcir  craving  for  ])r(»tri(ls.  Because  of  th(^  dcnsily  of  the 
population  and  the  conseciucnt  scarcity  of  animals,  even  the  less 
ex])ensi^■e  meats  likc^  ])ork  are  too  costly  for  ordinary  people  except 
at  feasts  or  other  special  occasions.  That  is  why  the  Chinese  some- 
times eat  rats,  dogs,  and  other  animals  which  we  despise.  Perhaps 
we  should  feel  differentl}"  if  our  sui)ph'  of  proteids  were  as  limited  as 
that  of  the  Chinese.  Fish,  however,  can  l)e  raised  without  diverting 
land  from  the  crops  needed  by  man.  Hence  no  people  in  the  world 
take  more  pains  than  the  Chinese  to  catch  fish  in  the  sea  and  rivei's, 
and  raise  them  in  ponds.  In  spite  of  this  the  anunal  food  of  China  is 
inade(iuate.  Therefore  recourse  must  be  had  to  plants  for  proteids. 
As  legumes  contain  more  proteids  than  any  other  vegetable  foods 
the  Chinese  raise  them  in  enormous  quantities,  especially  beans.  To 
render  them  palatable  and  to  avoid  monotony  they  make  them  into 
fx^an  flour,  bean  macaroni,  bean  oil,  bean  curd,  pickled  beans,  and 
soy,  a  hotly  spiced  sauce.  Thus  they  obtain  a  fairly  good  diet,  al- 
though it  still  has  too  much  starch  and  not  enough  proteids.  More- 
over, it  has  not  enough  fruit,  for  fruit  seems  a  luxury  to  the  Chinese, 
althougii  i-ealiy  it  is  needed  to  round  out  a  balanced  diet. 

Diet  of  Subtropical  Regions. — Subtrojiical  ]i(>ople  arc  more  for- 
tunate than  those  of  monsoon  regions.  \\  heat,  their  staple  crop,  is 
among  llic  best  articles  of  diet,  esi)ecially  if  one  ])i'()(luct  has  to  be 
used  as  the  main  food,  ll  is  somewhat  starchy,  but  as  the  sub- 
tro])ical  regions  arc  favoi-aJile  to  doincstic  animals,  esi)ecia-lly  sheep, 
there  is  ])!enty  of  meat  to  su])))ly  ])i()t('i(ls.  Moreover,  both  fruits 
and  nuts  thrive  admirably  in  subtr()])ical  countries,  especially  under 
in'igation,  so  that  the  best  kind  of  diet  is  available. 

The  food  sujiplN-  of  sul)ti'opical  regions  is  favorable  not  only 
because  it  contains  a  healthful  proportion  of  proteids,  carbohydrates 
and  fats,  but  beeau.se  it  renders  such  regions  less  liable  to  famines 
than  are  tho.se  that  depend  on  lice  or  millet  with  b(>ans  or  ])(>as.  A 
poor  wlieat  crop  is  not  accompanied  by  a  failure  of  the  sui)i)ly  of 
proteids.  W  hen  a  dry  season  causes  poor  crops  in  sul)li()pical  regions 
where  animals  are  abundant,  tiie  i)rice  of  meat  may  even  go  dcnvn  for 


TPiK  w()i;ld's  diet  357 

a  while.  This  is  because  the  scarcit}-  of  j^asture,  fodder,  and  grain 
makes  it  ini])ossible  for  people  to  keep  all  their  animals.  Therefore, 
many  of  them  are  sold  for  slaughter;  thus  when  the  carbohydrate 
supply  is  short, the  proteid  supply  tends  for  a  while  to  increase.  In  the 
rice  and  millet  countries  the  beans  and  peas  are  likely  to  fail  at  the 
same  time  with  the  cereals,  since  all  depend  upon  the  same  rains.  The 
failure  of  l)oth  kinds  of  food  produces  correspondingly  severe  famines. 
Diet  of  Cyclonic  Regions. — The  cyclonic  zone  is  the  most  favor- 
able part  of  the  world  in  respect  to  food  as  well  as  in  other  ways,  for 
four  main  reasons:  (1)  there  is  a  great  variety  of  good  food;  (2)  it  is 
constantly  available;  (3)  it  is  well  cooked;  and  (4)  it  is  served  regu- 
larly. 

(1)  Not  only  does  the  cyclonic  zone  raise  as  great  a  variety  as  the 
subtropical  zone  except  perhaps  in  the  matter  of  fruits,  but  it  brings 
still  other  varieties  from  other  climates.  On  the  farms  people  usually 
raise  several  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables  as  well  as  apples  or  other 
fruits,  chickens,  eggs,  and  cows.  In  the  towns  because  of  the  activity 
of  trade,  food  of  every  kind  comes  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Even 
in  winter  the  markets  provide  fresh  fruits  from  tropical  countries  and 
gi'een  vegetables  with  their  health-preserving  vitamines  from  regions 
Uke  Florida  and  Tripoli.  Only  among  the  most  ignorant  and  poverty- 
stricken  people  is  there  danger  from  great  monotony  of  diet.  All 
wise  people,  even  though  their  means  are  Imiited,  eat  a  sufficient 
variety  to  maintain  health  and  vigor.  Thus  all  the  necessary  food 
elements  are  supplied  in  due  proportion. 

(2)  The  people  of  cyclonic  regions  are  rarely  troubled  by  scarcity 
to-day  and  an  excess  of  perishable  food  to-morrow.  They  need  not 
half  starve  and  then  gormandize,  as  frequently  happens  to  the  people 
of  all  the  less  favored  regions  except  the  subtropical  zone. 

(3)  In  the  cyclonic  regions  far  more  than  elsewhere  food  is,  on  the 
whole,  well  cooked.  This  makes  it  nuich  more  aiijietizing  than  the 
raw  or  half-cooketl  food  eattni  by  people  like  the  I*]skimos  and  the 
dwellers  in  the  tropical  jungle.  Moreover,  thorough  cooking  guards 
against  disease  by  killing  a  gi'eat  many  germs. 

(4)  The  people  of  cyclonic  regions  have  the  further  advantage 
of  having  their  meals  at  regular  hours,  three  times  a  day.  This  not 
only  economizes  time,  but  is  nuich  better  for  health  than  are  the 
in-egular  meals  of  tropical  people  who  eat  when  they  happen  to  ob- 
tain food. 

With  all  these  advantages  the  strong  well-fed  peo]ile  of  the  cy- 
clonic zone  owe  it  to  the  rest  of  the  world  to  teach  the  more  backward 
races  how  to  insure  themselves  a  constant  supply  of  varied  footl 
l)r()])('rly   ])repar(>d. 


358        MAN'S    RELATION   TO    \'EGETATIOX    AND   ANIMALS 


QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES  AM)  PROBLEMS 

1.  ^\'ith  the  aid  of  tlu"  fahlo  near  the  honiniiiiin  of  tliis  cliaijtcr  oxamino  a 
breakfast  wliich  consists  of  fruit,  ocroal,  eggs,  broad,  butter,  colTee,  milk  and 
sugar.  How  far  is  this  a  well  balanced  meal?  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world 
shade  the  aretus  where  you  think  that  an  ordinary  i)erson  of  moderate  means 
could  obtain  such  a  breakfast  regularl3\  Exi)lain  what  tyi)cs  of  regions  you 
exclude. 

2.  It  is  claimed  that  enough  food  is  raised  in  France  to  supply  a  well  balanced 
diet  during  the  whole  year  to  each  member  of  its  population.  In  the  article  on 
France  in  the  Statesman's  Yearbook  study  the  sections  entitled  "Agriculture" 
and  "E.vports."  In  the  light  of  these  sections  and  of  the  table  at  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter,  write  a  criticism  of  the  jirobablc  truth  of  this  statement. 

3.  In  England  more  and  more  space  is  being  given  up  to  market  gardens. 
Give  reasons  for  this  and  explain  its  wisdom  in  com])ari.'^on  with  the  wisdom  of 
raising  wheat  or  cattle,  or  of  letting  the  farming  population  work  in  factories. 

4.  Suppose  the  area  within  50  miles  of  j^our  home  to  be  cut  off  from  outside 
sources  of  food.  List  the  changes  this  would  make  in  the  following  respects: 
(a)  variety  of  food.  Consider  the  main  items  of  your  diet  derived  from  near  at 
hand  and  those  brought  from  a  distance,  noting  the  place  whence  they  come. 
{b)  The  healthfulness  of  your  diet.  Would  cereals,  meats,  dairy  products,  fruits, 
sugar,  vegetables  or  beverages  be  chiefly  cut  ofT?  Would  the  communitj'  sulTer 
most  from  lack  of  carbohydrates,  fats,  proteids,  acids,  or  vitamines? 

5.  The  early  colonists  of  America  relied  at  first  on  corn  and  game  for  their 
chief  food.  Discuss  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  such  a  diet.  Discuss 
also  the  value  of  the  arrival  from  England  of  a  sliip  carrying  flour,  bacon,  cheese, 
so  far  as  improvement  in  diet  was  concerned. 

6.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  Great  War,  it  was  exceedingly  important  to 
get  wheat  for  western  Europe  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency  caused  by  the  cut- 
ting off  of  supjilies  from  south  Russia.  Classify  the  countries  from  which  wheat 
could  be  imported  to  meet  this  need  with  regard  to  (a)  amount  e.x])orted  annually 
in  a  normal  year;  (h)  distance  from  western  Europe;  (c)  the  season  at  which 
the  harvest  falls. 

7.  Classify  the  cliitf  trees  which  furnish  food  for  man  according  to  the  zone  of 
vegetation  in  wiiich  they  thrive, 


CHAPTER  XX 
MAN'S  CHANGING  SURROUNDINGS. 

Geographic  Constants  and  Variables. — Among  the  physical 
features  of  man's  surroundinos  three,  namely,  location,  land  forms, 
and  water  bodies  may  be  regarded  as  constants.  The  location  of  a 
place  in  relation  to  the  poles  and  the  equator  or  in  relation  to  the  lands 
and  the  oceans  never  changes,  or  at  least  changes  so  slowly  that  man 
is  not  conscious  of  it.  Land  forms  are  almost  equally  constant. 
Although  the  mountains  may  be  worn  down  a  little  by  erosion  in  the 
course  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  j'eare  or  raised  a  little  higher  by 
earth  movements,  they  have  not  changed  appreciably  during  the 
period  covered  bj^  human  history.  With  water  bodies,  the  third 
element,  the  changes  are  equally  unhnportant  except  where  variations 
of  climate  cause  a  desert  lake,  for  instance,  to  dwindle  in  size,  or 
a  river  like  the  Hwang  Ho  to  become  China's  sorrow,  or  where  man 
himself  has  built  rcsei-\'oirs.  enlarged  harbors,  and  reclaimed  land 
from  swamps  or  from  the  sea  as  in  Holland. 

Soils  and  minerals,  the  fourth  great  feature  of  man's  physical 
surroundings,  are  more  variable  than  the  first  three.  Their  changes, 
however,  are  either  extremely  slow  or  are  due  to  man's  own  actions. 
Slow  changes  consist  of  the  weathering  of  new  soil,  the  accumulation 
of  hunuis,  and  the  formation  of  new  mineral  deposits  by  wat(>r  that 
percolates  through  the  rocks.  These  changes,  however,  are  almost  as 
slow  as  the  changes  in  relief.  The  changes  caused  by  man  are  more 
important.  By  cultivating  the  soil  he  robs  it  of  its  wealth.  In 
China  thousands  of  square  miles  have  entirely  lost  the  valuable  soil 
cover  because  it  has  been  washed  away  after  the  cutting  down  of  the 
forests.  In  long-cultivated  countries  like  Greece  the  soil  has  sulil'ered 
much  from  constant  cultivation  without  the  addition  of  proper  fer- 
tilizers. In  Italy  and  other  countries  such  exhaustion  of  the  soil 
probal)ly  helped  to  cause  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Ilmjiire.  Mineral 
deposits  are  likewise  exhausted  by  man.  In  any  mining  coimtiy 
one  can  find  towns  like  Virginia  City,  Nevada,  that  once  were  pros- 
perous, but  now  have  fallen  to  ruins  because  the  earth  has  been 
robbed  of  its  mineral  de])()sits. 

Climate,  the  fifth  gr(>at  feature  of  physical  environment,  is  far 
more  variable  than  any  of  the  others.     A  cool  wet  sununer  may  cause 

350 


3G0         MAX'S    KKT.  \rii)X    OF   VFXIETATIOX    AXD    AXIMALS 

an  Adii'oiidark  resort  to  Ix'  almost  dcsortcd,  and  thus  haiiki'Ujit.  the 
hotel  keei)ers,  cause  the  {luidi^s  to  ^o  elsewhere  for  a  liviiifi,  ami 
make  the  boats  and  railroads  run  at  a  loss.  A  droufiht  of  a  few 
months  may  caus(^  famines  like  those  we  have  discussed  in  India. 

Often  the  climate  f^rows  wetter  and  colder  for  a  few  years  and  then 
l)ecomes  drier  and  warmer  until  it  returns  to  the  orifrinul  condition, 
only  auaiii  to  entci'  U])()n  a  new  cycle  of  the  same  soi't.  There  arc 
irn^fiular  climatic  cycles  of  evcny  grade  from  those  of  ahout  three 
yeai-s.  throufjh  those  of  11,  33,  100,  and  so  on  u]i  to  the  f?i-eat  cycles 
known  as  glacial  jieriods.  Thus,  climate  is  th(>  one  great  physical 
condition  which  varies  a]i])recial)ly.  The  otluu"  four — location,  land 
forms.  wat(n"  hodies,  and  soil  and  minerals — are  relatively  constant 
except  when  long  jieriods  are  considered. 

Though  most  of  the  i)hysical  features  of  man's  environment 
change  hut  little,  the  plants  and  animals  upon  Avhich  man  depends 
so  laigcly  are  subject  to  many  variations.  These  usually  tak(^  the 
form  of  migrations,  blights,  and  diseases.  Let  us  begin  with  some  of 
the  variations  in  plants  and  animals  and  then  ]xiss  to  those  due 
directly  to  cUmate. 

Examples  of  Geographic  Variables.  Animal  Migrations:  Lo- 
custs. The  migrations  of  anijnals  illustrate  the  effect  of  geograi)hic 
variables.  Those  of  ijisects  are,  on  the  whole,  much  more  important 
than  those  of  larger  animals.  One  of  the  l)est  known  migratory  in- 
sects is  the  locust.  Its  movements  depend  larg(>ly  upon  climate. 
In  years  when  the  eggs  are  able  to  hatch  in  larg(>  nmu])ers  vast  swarms 
of  the  insects  infest  states  like  Kansas.  HaA'ing  eaten  ever}-  gi-een 
thing  where  they  were  hatched  they  begin  to  migrate,  and  move 
across  the  country  by  the  million,  all  headed  in  the  same  direction, 
although  no  one  knows  why.  They  leave  behind  them  a  desert 
])eo])led  by  ])overty  stricken  and  discouraged  farmcn-s. 

The  Destructive  Effect  of  the  Cotton  Weevil. — The  damage  done 
by  locusts  is  ])i-(jl)ably  small  com])ar(Hl  with  that  due  to  various  insects 
which  attack  cotton.  It  is  esthnated  that  insects  damage  the  cotton 
en.])  of  tiie  I'nitrd  States  to  the  extent  of  $100,000,000  amiually. 
A  little  more  than  half  of  this  is  due  to  insects  which  live  pcn'manently 
in  the  cotton  area.  The  remainder  is  duo  to  a  small  gi'ay  beetle  called 
the  t>oll  weevil.  Since  about  1800  the  weevil  has  been  slowly  s])read- 
ing  from  its  original  home  in  Mexico  into  the  cotton  ])roducing  region 
of  the  I'nited  States.  (See  i-'ig.  100.)  The  weevils  sting  thetlower 
buds  in  older  to  lay  their  eggs,  which  are  deposited  at  the  base  of  the 
young  bolls  oi-  pods.  This  ruins  the  cotton.  .Vs  the  weexil  occupies 
new  territory  year  by  year  new  groups  of  farmers  are  added  to  those 
who  suffer.      To  gel  rid  ol  1  he  wee\il  I  he  American  taimei's  have  t  I'ied 


MAN'S  CHANGING   SURROUNDINGS  361 

many  methods  such  as  killing  the  weeds  on  which  the  insect  lives  part 
of  the  year,  and  introducing  new  and  resistant  varieties  of  cotton,  such 
as  that  of  Guatemala. 

How  the  Phylloxera  Ruins  the  Grapes. — The  phylloxera,  a  kind 
of  plant  louse  which  ruins  grape  vines,  has  done  even  more  damage 
than  the  boll  weevil.  Its  original  home  is  the  United  States,  but 
there  the  vines  have  become  uimume  to  its  attacks.  That  is,  in  the 
course  of  many  yeai-s,  those  that  were  most  injured  have  been  killed, 
and  only  those  that  could  endure  its  ravages  have  lived. 

About  1860  the  phylloxera  was  accidentally  introduced  into 
Europe  through  the  importation  of  American  vines.  It  spread  at 
once  and  did  enormous  damage.  For  instance,  in  1865-7  the  little 
commune  of  Graveson  near  Bordeaux  in  France  obtained  its  ready 
money  for  taxes,  clothing,  and  incidental  expenses  by  producing 
220,000  gallons  of  wine  each  year.  In  1868  the  phylloxera  reached 
this  section,  and  by  1873  the  production  of  wine  had  fallen  to  1100 
gallons.  By  1888  the  total  loss  to  France  as  a  whole  is  estimated  at 
two  billion  dollars.  In  some  places  the  consequent  poverty  of  the 
farmers  led  to  violent  political  agitation,  for  people  often  have  the 
strange  idea  that  troubles  due  to  geogi'aphicai  conditions  can  be 
remedied  by  changes  in  the  laws. 

When  once  the  phylloxera  is  introduced  the  only  remedy  is  to  root 
up  all  the  vines  and  start  with  new  ones  raised  from  American  stock. 
Not  only  France,  but  almost  every  gi-ape-raising  region  in  the  world 
has  suffered  niore  or  less  in  the  same  way. 

Scales  and  Moths.- — ^Many  other  insects,  and  also  certain  fungi, 
do  sunilar  damage.  The  orange  scale,  for  instance,  has  almost  ruined 
many  orange  groves.  In  the  northeastern  United  States  the  g\'psy, 
brown-tail,  and  other  moths  which  were  introduced  from  Europe 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  greatly  injured 
certain  species  of  trees.  Massachusetts,  for  example,  has  spent 
millions  of  dollars  in  a  single  year  to  get  rid  of  these  pests  or  at  least 
to  prevent  them  from  migrating  into  ticw  leiritory.  The  only 
real  remedy  seems  to  be  the  introduction  of  ])arasitic  contagious  dis- 
eases which  spread  from  moth  to  moth.  When  the  weather  is  warm 
and  moist  such  diseases  kill  the  insects  by  the  million. 

Plant  Migrations. — The  niigrations  of  j^lants  are  as  harmful 
as  those  of  animals.  The  daisy,  for  instance,  was  introduceil  into 
America  from  Europe,  and  then  spread  over  millions  of  acres.  It 
diminishes  the  hay  crop  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons,  for  it 
crowds  out  good  grass,  exhausts  the  soil,  and  is  itself  not  eaten  by  any 
domestic  animals.     The  Scotch  thistle  does  similar  harm. 

Even  greater  damage  is  done  by  small  forms  of  yeast-like  plants 


3(32        MAX'S   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

callod  parasitic  fungi,  Avhieh  grow  on  othrr  plants  as  mold  gi-ows  on 
('lu'('S(\  Among  the  worst  of  these  are  ihv  wheat  rust  and  the  potato 
blight,  which  sometimes  ruin  the  crop  in  mnisually  wet  seasons. 
In  the  eastern  I'nited  States  the  slowly  sjjreadiiig  chestnut  blight  has 
ruined  many  a  great  tree  like  that  under  which  stood  the  village  black- 
smith's shop  in  Longfellow's  famous  poem.  The  only  known  remedy 
is  to  cut  down  all  the  chestnut  trees  in  a  broad  belt,  as  has  l)een  done 
in  Pennsylvania,  so  that  the  blight  may  have  nothing  upon  which  to 
live. 

Migrations  of  Disease. — ]\Icn  and  animals  as  well  as  plants  are 
often  attacked  by  pests  wliich  spread  from  place  to  place  and  hence 
are  variables.  For  instance,  influenza  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
diseases  because  it  is  highly  contagious  and  even  if  its  victims  survive 
they  are  weak  for  a  long  time.  In  this  case,  as  in  most  variables,  two 
factors  are  concerned:  (1)  the  bacteria  which  cause  the  disease,  and 
(2)  man.  The  bacteria  are  present  in  most  countries  at  all  times. 
Occasionally,  for  reasons  not  3'et  underetood,  they  suddcnlj-  become 
extremely  virulent  and  devastating  epidemics  occur.  Man's  varia- 
tions are  better  understood.  Under  ideal  conditions  of  climate, 
ventilation,  and  food,  he  is  able  to  resist  the  disease  even  in  its  worst 
form,  provided  his  health  is  not  impaired  in  other  ways.  Rarely, 
however,  do  these  ideal  conditions  prevail,  and  hence  epidemics  break 
out  and  cannot  be  stopped.  Every  winter  there  is  a  mild  outbreak 
because  man's  power  of  resistance  is  at  a  low  ebb.  One  of  the  last 
great  epidemics  developed  in  Asiatic  Russia  in  1889,  perhaps  because 
of  a  severe  winter  and  poor  food.  It  tlu^n  spread  raj^idly  without 
apparent  regard  to  weather  or  climate,  following  the  lines  of  human 
intercoui'se  along  the  world's  great  trade  routes  to  the  remotest  coun- 
tries. In  1918  a  far  worse  epideniic  broke  out,  apparently  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Great  War.  More  people  died  than  in  any  epidemic 
since  the  notorious  Black  Death  of  the  fourteenth  century.  In  the 
United  States  half  a  million  people  died  cither  of  influenza  or  of  the 
pneumonia  which  often  follows  it.  In  the  world  as  a  whole  about 
1"), ()()(),()()()  peo])le,  or  nearly  one  in  ev(>ry  liundred,  fell  victims  to  the 
disease;  in  India  the  number  was  6,UUU,UU0,  or  one  in  50;  in  Mexico 
one  in  25;  in  Yekaterinburg,  a  Ru.ssian  city  as  large  as  Savannah,  a 
third  of  the  ]i()])ulati()n  jK-rished,  and  in  some  Indian  cities,  half.  The 
great  ravages  of  influenza  in  trojiical  countries  and  also  in  regions  like 
Russia,  where  the  people  were  especially  weakened  by  war  and 
famine,  show  that  the  greatest  safeguard  against  the  disease  is  a 
general  condition  of  good  health.  The  gi*eat  mortality  from  influ- 
enza in  the  camps  of  our  own  army  shows  how  the  crowding  of 
ix'ojjlc  into  small  areas  favors  the  spread  of  infectious  diseases. 


MAN'S  CHANGING  SURROUNDINGS  363 

Microscopic  Creatures  as  part  of  Man's  Environment. — Since 
the  microscope  was  invented  people  have  learnetl  the  importance  of 
tiny  gernis  inclucUng  both  the  minute  animals  called  "protozoa,"  such 
as  produce  malaria,  and  the  equally  small  plants  called  bacteria,  such 
as  spread  tj'phoid  fever.  These  tiny  creatures  are  a  part  of  man's 
geographic  surroundings  as  much  as  the  bigger  forms  of  life  such  as 
horses,  tigers,  fish,  and  insects,  or  trees,  bushes,  grass,  and  corn. 
Because  the  protozoa  and  bacteria,  however,  can  be  seen  only  under  a 
powerful  microscope  and  are  known  only  by  the  results  they  produce 
they  were  long  ignored.  Their  effects  upon  man,  however,  are  fully 
as  important  as  those  of  the  larger  forms  of  life,  as  is  clear  from  the 
examples  of  diseases  which  we  have  just  considered.  Man  must 
study  the  mmuter  forms  of  life  with  special  care  because  of  their  great 
variety,  and  because  they  are  so  variable  in  their  activity.  He  can 
plan  to  meet  the  attacks  of  tigers  and  wolves,  but  it  is  harder  to 
meet  the  attacks  of  tiny  creatures  so  small  and  numerous  that  we 
may  take  them  in  by  the  miUion  at  eveiy  breath  and  so  deadly 
sometimes  that  they  kill  a  thousand  men  where  wild  animals  kill 
only  one. 

The  Newfoundland  Fisheries. — Thus  far  in  considering  geogi-aph- 
ical  variables  we  have  concerned  oureelves  largely  with  pests.  Let 
us  now  look  at  the  movements  of  useful  animals  such  as  the  fish  of  the 
Newfoundland  Banks.  IMore  than  half  of  the  people  of  Newfound- 
land are  engaged  in  catching  and  curing  fish.  The  total  catch  varies 
greatly  from  year  to  year  because  of  changes  in  the  fishes'  food  supply, 
in  the  amount  of  salt  in  the  water,  and  in  conditions  of  temperature, 
storminess,  and  winds.  Hence  the  island  sometmies  enjoj's  prosperity 
and  sometimes  suffers  distress.  From  about  18G0  to  1868  the  New- 
foundland fisheries  were  so  unproductive  that  widespread  destitution 
prevailed  among  the  working  classes.  Hence  people  began  to  turn  to 
agi-icultin-e  and  stockraising  and  farming  received  such  a  start  that 
it  has  increased  ever  since,  in  spite  of  the  cool  clunate.  This  is  for- 
tunate, for  Newfoundland  cannot  prosper  unless  other  resources  beside 
fishing  are  exploited.  A  less  favorable  result  was  the  introduction  of 
a  system  of  poor  relief,  not  only  for  people  who  were  unable  to  work, 
but  for  the  able-bodied.  This  proved  very  demoralizing,  for  people 
said  that  if  the  government  would  support  them,  they  were  not  going 
to  work.  Even  though  the  fisheries  ])ccame  successful  again  in  1869 
the  poor  relief  system  had  lasted  long  enough  to  do  serious  harm. 

Weather  as  a  Geographic  Variable.  The  Galveston  Hurricane. — 
Many  geogra])hic  variai^les  such  as  insect  jiests,  epiileiuics,  and 
the  migi'ations  of  fish  are  due  indirectly  to  the  weather.  The  direct 
effects  of  variations  in  the  weather  are  ccjually  iini)()rlant.     I'or  in- 


3(U        MAX'S    Hi:r-A'l'I()X    TO    VEr.KTA'IMOX    AND    ANIMALS 

stance,  in  Soptcniber,  1900,  Galveston,  Texas,  was  visited  by  a  hum- 
cane  from  tlie  West  Indies.  A  violent  wind  Mew  for  (M<i;hteon  hours, 
reaching  a  luaxinnun  velocity  of  84  miles  an  hour.  The  watei-s  of 
the  CUilf  of  Mexico  were  ]iiled  u])  in  enormous  waves  that  swe])t 
across  a  large  jiart  of  the  city,  destroying  or  l)a(lly  damaging  more 
than  SOOO  l)uiidings,  and  entailing  the  loss  of  about  (iOOO  lives  and  of 
l)ro|X'rty  valued  at  S3(),()()(), ()()().  Thereupon  the  city  set  to  work  to 
prepare  for  the  recurrence  of  this  variable  geographic  condition.  A 
wall  of  solid  masonry  was  built  for  5  miles  along  the  water  front  at 
an  expense  of  §2,000,000.  The  entire  gi'adc  of  the  city  was  raised 
from  1  to  15  feet  above  its  former  level. 

In  .\ugust,  1915,  there  came  another  hurricane  nearly  as  violent 
as  that  of  1900.  The  maxiinmn  velocity  of  the  wind  was  93  miles 
pen-  hoiu",  but  the  tide  at  the  highest  rose  only  12  feet  instead  of  20  as 
in  1900.     Thanks  to  the  seawall  and  to  the  warnings  sent  by  the 


B^: . j —  ^-. j w^ — 5_ 


Fig.  115. — Summer  Rainfall  in  Kansas. 

Rainfall  of  May,  .June,  and  July,  weighted,  and  smoothed  to  show  the  efTect  on  the  corn  crop. 
Black  sliadiuK  indicates  drought. 


Weather  Bureau  to  jx'ojjIc  li\iiig  l^'vond  the  ])ro1ection  of  tlic  wall 
the  loss  of  life  in  1915  was  only  about  275,  w  liilc  t  he  ))ro])('rt>'  loss  was 
much  less  than  before. 

Rainfall  and  Settlement  in  Kansas. — Rainfall  is  aiiollicr  clcniciit 
of  weather,  the  variations  of  which  are  of  great  im])ortance.  In 
western  Kansas,  for  example,  the  corn  crop  dcjjcnds  on  the  summer 
rain,  especially  that  of  July,  when  the  ears  are  (l('\(lo])iiig  most  ra])i(ll>-. 
The  curved  line  of  Fig.  115  shows  how  the  variations  of  the  rainfall 
of  May,  .lune,  and  July  have  affected  the  farmers  of  western  Kansas 
since  1870.  When  the  cuncd  line  is  abo\'c  the  sti-aight  line  r('])i'c- 
scnting  the  average  rainfall  the  farmers  ])ros])er.  When  it  falls 
below,  Ihey  often  cannot  raise  enough  to  sujiport  their  families  and 
pay  tlii'ii-  debts. 

The  meager  rainfall  from  1870  to  1877  did  little  harm,  for  then 
theic  were  few  settlers  in  western  Kansas,  and  most  of  them  de])ended 
uixin  cattle  nifire  than  on  ci'OlJS.  I'A'eii  among  these,  liowe\'ei",  solium 
became  so  ])oor  that  they  had  to  mo\-e  a\\a>'.     The  ])eiiod  from  1878 


MAN'S  CHANGING  SURROUNDINGS  365^ 

to  1886  was  oxcellont,  for  the  rainfall  was  abundant,  Settlei"s  moved 
into  western  Kansas  in  considerahU^  numbers.  I'.ach  farmer  received 
from  the  government  a  "quarter  section,"  that  is,  a  quarter  of  a 
square  mile  of  land,  or  160  acres.  For  a  few  years  everyone  was  en- 
thusiastic, and  the  land  availa])le  for  settlement  was  rapidly  taken  up. 

Then  came  a  period  of  scanty  rainfall  lasting  till  about  1896. 
Thus  the  climate  and  the  crops  completed  a  cycle.  Dry  conditions 
returned  just  as  the  summer  retm-ns  in  the  shorter  cycle  of  the  y(>ar. 
Year  after  year  the  rainfall  was  scanty  and  the  crops  were  poor.  The 
farmers  were  able  to  struggle  along  only  l)y  mortgaging  their  houses 
and  getting  more  and  more  into  debt.  At  last,  with  no  im])r()V(nn(Mit 
in  rainfall,  conditions  became  so  bad  that  farms  were  abandoned  by 
the  hundred.  INIany  families  were  too  poor  to  pay  railroad  fares. 
They  packed  up  all  their  l)elonging's  in  great  farm  wagons,  and  drove 
away  seeking  new  homes.  During  this  low  period  in  the  cycle  of 
rainfall  not  only  did  the  farmers  themselves  suffer,  but  the  merchants 
who  supplied  their  wants,  the  people  l)ack  in  the  East  who  had  loaned 
them  money,  the  manufacturers  who  made  the  goods  that  they  con- 
sumed, and  the  railroads  that  usually  carried  the  crops  that  they 
raised. 

How  Dry  Farming  Helps  in  Regions  of  Scanty  Rainfall. — Little 
by  little  the  farmers  of  drj'  regions  are  learning  to  proA"ide  against 
drought.  In  Kansas,  for  example,  during  the  com])aratively  favor- 
able period  since  the  nineties  they  have  learned  to  preserve  the  water 
in  the  soil  for  many  months  or  even  from  one  year  to  another.  They 
do  this  by  plowing  or  harrowing  after  every  rain  in  order  to  break  up 
the  crust  that  forms  when  the  soil  dries.  Thus  the  surface  is  always 
covered  with  a  layer  of  soft,  dry  dust.  Anj^one  who  has  made 
bread  knows  how  flour,  which  is  merely  wheat  dust,  almost  refuses  to 
allow  the  water  to  enter  it  except  by  the  aid  of  vigorous  stimng. 
Such  a  layer  of  dust  on  the  surface  of  the  fields  prevents  the  ground 
water  from  evaporating  and  hence  is  a  gi'cat  help  to  the  crops.  This 
method  of  "dry  farming"  enables  crops  to  be  grown  with  compar- 
atively little  rainfall.  It  is  a  great  help  to  the  farmer,  luit  demands 
a  large  amount  of  labor.  Even  where  dry-farming  is  practiced,  how- 
ever, it  is  only  a  partial  remedy  for  scanty  rainfall.  Abiuidant  rain- 
fall still  causes  prospcM'ity,  while  scanty  rainfall  may  bring  poverty. 

Variations  in  Rainfall  and  Migration  from  Western  Europe. — 
One  of  the  most  important  occurrences  of  the  past  hundred  years  has 
been  the  migration  of  l*]uropeans  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New. 
The  fundamental  cause  is  of  coui'se  the  fact  that  America  is  a  new  land 
with  aliuii(l;ui(  ()i)])()rtuiiit ics.  while  Europe  is  an  old  land  densely 
popuhiti'd.     These  coiiditioiis  are  a  constant  cause  of  luigration,  and  if 


3GG        MAN'S   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

acting  lUoiic  wouUl  give  a  rise  to  a  steady  How  of  people  into  tiic 
I'nited  States.  Other  variable  factors,  however,  enter  into  the  prob- 
lem from  year  to  year.  From  1914  to  1920  the  (Ireat  War  was  the 
chief  factor  in  controiUng  migration,  l)ut  under  ordinaiy  conditions 
dianges  in  rainfall  or  climatic  cycles  are  the  chief  cause  of  variation. 
Too  much  rainfall  in  Scandinavia,  Britain,  the  Netherlands,  and 
Germany  may  be  as  bad  as  too  little  in  Kansas.  Those  countries  are 
so  far  north  and  are  usually  so  well  supplied  with  rain  that  when  the 
rainfall  is  above  the  average,  vegetation  does  not  get  enough  sun 
and  warmth.  Hence  the  crops  are  scanty;  poverty  and  discontent 
arise ;  people  want  to  get  away  to  another  country ;  and  there  is  much 
eniigi-ntion.  The  I'nited  States  lies  enough  farther  south  than  north- 
west i-rn  lun-o])e  so  that  on  the  whole  it  is  benefited  by  abundant 
rainfall.  Hence  prosperity  is  apt  to  prevail  here  when  poverty  pre- 
vails there,  provided  the  rainfall  cycles  are  the  same  in  the  two  places, 
which  is  often  the  case.  Thus  good  conditions  here  may  attract 
people  from  Europe  just  when  poor  conditions  there  are  driving  them 
away. 

How  too  Much  Rain  Brings  the  Irish  to  America. — The  European 
region  that  has  been  most  affected  by  emigi'ation  to  America  is  Ire- 
land. Through  emigration  the  po]Hilation  of  that  country  has  been 
reduced  bj'  half.  At  the  census  of  1841  there  were  8,200,000  people, 
and  in  1911  onlj^  4,400,000.  As  in  many  other  cases  the  emigration 
from  Ireland  is  due  to  a  constant  cause  which  is  within  human  control, 
and  a  variable  geogi'aphical  cause  which  is  beyond  human  control. 
The  constant  cause  is  the  unfavorable  social  conditions.  For  instance, 
the  land  has  till  recently  l)een  largc^ly  owned  by  a  few  absentee  land- 
lords who  did  not  often  visit  their  estates  and  who  cared  Httle  for  the 
poor  tenants  provided  the  rent  was  paid.  The  variable  cause  is  the 
fluctuations  in  the  rainfall,  and  lu>nc(>  in  the  ])()tato  croji,  tlu^  chief 
agi'icultural  resource  of  Ireland. 

Previous  to  about  1845  Ireland  enjoyed  a  coin]xiratively  dry 
jx'riod  with  excellent  crops  most  of  tlu>  time.  The  jjojnilation  in- 
creased until  in  1845  it  reached  a  maxiiniun  of  8,300,000.  Then  came 
a  series  of  damp  years  with  such  complete  failure  of  the  potato  crop, 
that  200,000  to  3()0,()()0  i)e()i)le  died  of  stan'ation  and  fever.  The 
British  government  provided  work  for  over  700,000  ])eoi)le  at  one 
time,  but  this  w'as  not  enough.  Then  food  was  distributed  in  enor- 
mous ([uantities,  and  over  3,000,000  ])e()ple  were  at  one  period  su])])lied 
with  rations.  Nevertheless  such  great  discontent  arose  that  in  1848 
a  rebellion  was  attempted. 

Periiajjs  the  most  unportant  r(>sult  of  the  exc(>ss  of  rain  was  a  rajiid 
emigi'ation  to  America  beginning  in  184G.     In  live  yeai-s  the  popula- 


MAN'S  CHANGING  SURROUNDINGS 


367 


tion  diminished  to  6,000,000,  a  loss  of  20  per  cent.  During  the  suc- 
ceeding chy  favorable  period  the  rate  of  emigration  declined  rapidly, 
as  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  In  the  eighties,  however, 
another  prolonged  wet  period  with  poor  han^  ests  made  the  bad  social 
conditions  still  worse,  and  the  people  again  flocked  to  America.  If 
the  cUmate  of  Ireland  had  been  less  variable,  the  important  Irish 
element  in  the  United  States  would  still  be  here  because  of  the  con- 
stant cause  of  emigration  found  in  social  and  economic  conditions, 
but  it  would  presumably  be  nuich  smaller  than  is  actually  the  case. 


POPULATION  IN  IRELAND 


Date. 

Population. 

Decrease  in 
Population. 

Percentage  of 
Decrease. 

1841 

8,200,000 

1851 

6,600,000 

1,630,000 

20 

1861 

5,800,000 

770,000 

12 

1871 

5,400,000 

390,000 

7 

1881 

5,100,000 

240,000 

4 

1891 

4,700,000 

470,000 

9 

1901 

4,500,000 

240,000 

5 

1911 

4,400,000 

80,000 

3 

How  Rainfall  Cycles  Affect  the  American  Farmer. — Too  much  rain 
and  too  little  are  both  harmful,  but  in  the  United  States  more  harm 
comes  from  too  Uttle  than  from  too  much.  Corn  illustrates  this. 
The  corn  produced  in  the  United  States  is  worth  over  three  billion 
dollare  each  year,  or  about  as  much  as  all  the  ores,  metals,  and  other 
mineral  products  including  coal,  iron,  pctrolcmn,  copper,  gold,  cement, 
and  many  other  less  valuable  products.  Its  variations  from  year  to 
year,  however,  are  very  great.  For  instance,  in  1894  about  one 
billion  two  hundred  million  bushels  were  raised,  while  in  1895  the 
crop  was  a  billion  bushels  larger.  Smce  corn  was  then  worth  50  cents 
a  bushel  on  the  farm,  the  cUfference  between  the  amount  of  money 
received  by  the  farmei-s  in  those  two  yeai-s  would  be  nearh'  $500,000,- 
000,  which  was  as  niuch  as  a  bilUon  now.  There  was  a  similar 
difference  between  1901  and  1902,  while  differences  of  300,000,000 
bushels  from  one  year  to  the  next  are  coimnon. 

The  chief  cause  of  such  variations  is  rainfall.  Corn  can  get 
along  with  a  small  supply  of  moisture  during  the  early  and  lat(^  ]iarts 
of  its  life,  but  from  the  end  of  June  to  early  August  when  the  cars  ar(> 
swelling,  plenty  of  water  is  essential.  The  gi'eat  corn  ])roducing 
States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
and  Oklahoma  with  the  corn  growing  parts  of  the  neighboring  States 
plant  SO  to  90  milUon  acres  of  corn  each  yrnv.      If  tlic  .luK'  rainfall  t)f 


308        MANS   RELATION   TO   VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS 

this  area  uviTa^irs  about  2\  iiiclics  in  one  year  and  'A\  in  another  the, 
difference  iii  the  yield  of  corn  is  aljout  G-i  Imsliels  per  acre,  or  the 
huge  amount  of  more-  tiian  half  a  biUion  bus;iiels.  If  the  price  on  the 
farni  is  a  dollar  jx-r  bushel,  the  value  of  this  one  inch  of  rain  is  more 
then  $500,000,000.  Another  inch  of  rain  adds  nearly  half  as  nuich 
more  to  the  value  of  the  crop.  It  scarcely  seems  credible  that  a  single 
inch  of  rain  can  ])rotluce  such  tremendous  results,  even  though  it 
covers  such  a  large  area.  Surely  rainfall  is  a  geographic  varia])le  <jf 
ahnost  unhmited  power. 

Luckily  the  whole  country  never  suffers  from  deficient  rainfall  at 
one  time.  Yet  there  are  years  such  as  the  early  nineties  when  the 
deficiency  of  rain  is  veiy  widespread.  It  was  such  a  deficiency  that 
caused  the  corn  crops  of  1894  and  1901  respectively  to  be  worth  half 
n  billion  dollars  less  than  those  of  1895  and  1902.  Thus  the  income 
of  the  average  corn-raising  farmer  was  reduced  two  or  three  hunflred 
doUare. 

Think  what  it  means  when  not  only  the  corn,  but  many  other  crops 
respond  to  abundant  rainfall.  Not  onlj^  do  the  farmei"s  prosper,  but 
the  railroads  receive  far  larger  sums  than  usual  for  the  freight  on  the 
abundant  crops  and  on  the  goods  that  are  bought  in  exchange  for 
them.  The  merchants  prosper,  for  manj^  more  shoes,  hats,  suits, 
dresses,  plows,  clocks,  knives,  automobiles,  and  all  sorts  of  manu- 
factured goods  are  bought  by  the  farmer  in  the  good  years  than  in  the 
bad.  Many  factories  also  prosper,  for  since  the  farmers  buy  more 
goods  than  usual,  the  factories  run  on  full  time.  Thus  few  people  are 
out  of  work,  and  the  manufacturing  population  as  well  as  the  farmers 
have  more  than  the  ordinary  amoimt  of  money  to  spend.  News- 
jiaix'i-s  and  niagazines  are  bought  more  fre(iuenth'  than  at  other  times, 
mo\nng  pictures  and  other  amusements  are  patronized  with  gi'eater 
freedom.  Moreover,  manj''  farmers  who  have  hocn  in  debt  are  able 
to  pay  off  their  mortgages  so  that  capital  is  available  for  new  enter- 
prises. Altogether  the  whol(^  country  feels  a  wave  of  iir()S])('i-ity 
which  shows  itself  ncjt  onh'  in  busin(>ss,  but  in  (juiet  political  condi- 
tions, in  gi'eat  gifts  for  uni\-ei-sities,  hospitals,  and  other  ])ublic 
institutions,  and  in  a  general  feeling  of  satisfaction  and  c>ncourage- 
nu^nt. 

Ancient  Climatic  Cycles. — (1)  Ruins  as  an  Evidence  of  Decrease 
in  liaiiifall. — In  past  centuries  climatic  cycles  seem  to  have  gone  to 
greater  extrenu's  than  those  of  our  own  day  and  to  have  lieen  one  of  the 
iinportant  fact.ors  in  the  rise  and  fall  of  nations.  The  chief  evidence 
of  this  is  found  in  (1)  ruins,  (2)  the  level  of  salt  lakes,  (3)  the  gi'owth 
of  old  trees.  Palmyra  in  the  S>Tian  Desert  is  one  of  the  best  examjiles 
of  a  ruin  showing  evidence  of  changes  in  climate.     In  the  early  cen- 


MAN'S  CHANGING  SURROUNDINGS  369 

turies  of  the  Christian  era  Paknjrra  was  a  great  city  as  large  as  modern 
Damascus,  which  has  a  population  of  150,000.  Ancient  writers 
speak  with  enthusiasm  of  its  sweet  water  and  beautiful  gardens.  Its 
caravans  traveled  all  over  western  Asia,  and  it  grew  so  wealthy  that 
its  rich  citizens  took  pride  in  adorning  it  with  wonderful  colonnades 
and  temples.  To-day  Palmyra  is  a  vast  desolate  ruin  in  the  midst 
of  the  desert,  and  harbors  only  a  village  of  about  1500  people.  Its 
water  is  still  derived  from  the  old  acjueducts,  but  instead  of  being 
sweet  and  abundant,  it  has  a  disagi'eeable  odor  of  sulphur,  and  is  so 
scanty  that  the  people  cannot  get  enough  to  irrigate  even  the  small 
gardens  on  which  they  now  depend.  Such  conditions  not  only  here, 
but  in  hundreds  of  other  places,  seem  to  afford  conclusive  evidence 
that  during  the  past  2000  yeai-s  the  progress  of  great  climatic  cycles 
has  caused  the  rainfall  and  the  population  to  dwindle.  It  may  be 
that  during  the  rainy  portion  of  another  cycle  Palmyra  will  again 
become  a  great  city. 

(2)  Hoiv  Salt  Lakes  Shoiv  Changes  of  Rainfall. — Salt  lakes  are  a 
particularly  sensitive  index  of  changes  of  chmate  since,  having  no 
outlets,  they  rise  and  fall  in  response  to  increased  or  decreased  rainfall. 
For  example,  Owens  Lake  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierras  in  Cali- 
fornia must  formerly  have  been  fresh,  for  an  old  outlet  channel,  rem- 
nants of  a  gi'eat  beach,  and  chffs  cut  by  the  waves  prove  that  it  once 
stood  180  feet  higher  than  now  and  sent  out  an  abundant  overflow. 
When  the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct  was  being  built  the  amount  of  salt 
now  in  the  lake  was  found  to  be  only  as  much  as  would  be  brought  in 
by  the  Owens  and  other  tributaries  in  not  much  more  than  2000 
years.  Therefore  geologists  conclude  that  at  the  time  of  Christ  or  a 
few  centuries  earlier  the  lake  must  have  been  a  body  of  fresh  water 
with  an  outlet.  If  that  is  so,  the  climatic  cycle  which  enal)led 
Pabn>Ta  to  prosper  so  greatly  must  have  had  a  smiilar  effect  in  south- 
ern California.  Other  lakes  in  our  own  country  and  especially  in 
Asia  show  similar  indications  of  changes  of  cUmate  so  that  their  evi- 
dence is  as  widespn^ad  as  that  of  ruins. 

How  the  Caspian  Sea  Shows  Alternate  Wet  and  Dry  Epochs. — 
The  changes  of  climate  during  historic  limes  do  not  seem  to  belong 
to  one  cycle  but  to  several.  Since  records  of  the  level  of  the  Cas])ian 
Sea  are  available  for  2000  years  that  salt^  lake  furnishes  an  uncom- 
monly good  nieasure  of  the  climatic  cycU's  of  the  Christian  I'lra. 
These  records  relate  to  three  main  kinds  of  facts:  (1)  the  distance 
from  the  lake  shore  lo  know  n  laiid-niarks;  (2)  old  walls  like  the  Great 
Chinese  Wall  and  old  l)uildings  wiiich  were  built  on  dry  land  but  arc 
now  sul)merged  IxMieath  th(>  lake;  (3)  old  l)uildings  which  tiie  lake 
once  reached,  but  which  ;iic  now  abo\'e  its  \v\(-\.     All  these  kinds  of 


370        MANS    RELATION    TU    VEGETATION    AND    ANLMALR 


facts  iiulicato  that  at  tho  tiiiio  of  Christ  or  carhrr  the  Caspian  Sea 
stood  at  a  level  75  or  100  feet  ahove  tlie  level  of  to-day.  Six  or 
seven  hundred  yeai's  later  tiie  cliinate  was  so  <hv  tliat  the  lake  stood 
even  lower  than  now,  as  is  indicated  l)y  the  ends  of  two  jrreat  walls 
constructed  to  keep  out  barbarians.  A  few  hundred  years  later,  how- 
ever, in  the  tenth  century,  the  wet  ])art()f  a  cycle  was  reached,  for  a 
Pei-sian  j:eo<i;rai)her  tells  us  that  the  Casjnan  Sea  had  then  risen  some 
40  or  50  feet  to  the  level  of  a  certain  tower,  and  a  little  later  the  water 
probably  rose  still  higher.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  at  this 
same  time  PalnnTa  jiartially  recovered. 

This  does  not  end  the  fluctuations  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  however, 
for  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  a  second  dry  i)erio(l  again 
lowered  the  lake  level.  A  c(>ntury  later  the  old  records  tell  us  that  the 
Caspian  again  rose  to  a  lu>ight  of  nearly  40  feet  al)Ove  the  ])resent 
level.  Thus  it  appeai-s  that  the  Caspian  Sea  stood  at  a  suii)risingly 
high  le\-el  at  the  tunc  of  Christ,  at  a  low  level  six  or  seven  hundred 


300   400   500   600   700   800   900   1000  1100  1200   1300  1400  1500  1600  1700   1000  1900 


Fig.  IIG. — Changes  of  Climate  in  California  During  the  Christian  Era. 

Black  shading  indicates  drought. 

years  later,  high  again  about  1000  a.d.,  low  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tmy,  high  in  the  fourteenth,  and  now  low  once  more.  Hence  it  is 
clear  that  there  have  been  two  complete  main  cycles  of  rainfall  since 
the  tijue  of  Christ,  and  we  are  now  in  a  third. 

(3)  How  Trees  Slioir  ('linidtic  Cycles. — A\'ithin  50  inil(>s  of  Owens 
Lake,  but  on  the  other  side  of  the  Sierras,  the  famous  Big  Trees  of 
California  furnish  a  still  fuller  record  of  these  same  clunatic  cycles 
and  of  many  smaller  ones  during  a  period  of  over  3000  years.  The 
rings  of  trees  vary  in  thickness  for  sc^veral  causes,  but  in  a  dry  climate 
like  that  of  sf)Uthern  California  the  chief  cause  is  the  amount  of  rain 
and  the  season  ;it  uliich  it  falls.  As  huiidreils  of  the  P)ig  Trees  have 
been  cut  down  for  fence  ])()sts  and  matchwood,  it  is  ])ossil)le  to  measure 
the  thickness  of  the  rings  as  th(\v  a])]iear  on  the  stujn])s.  I^y  count- 
ing in  from  the  edge  it  is  easy  to  find  a  I'ing  thai  was  formed  in  1776, 
for  instance,  in  1402,  or  at  the  i)irlh  of  Christ. 

The  rings  dating  from  the  time  of  Christ  are  thick  and  indicate 
that  at  that  time,  when  Palmyra  had  an  abundant  su])i)ly  of  water, 
when  Owens  Lake  overflowetl  and  there  was  high  water  in  tho  Caspian 


MAN'S  CHANGING  SURROUNDINGS  371 

Sea,  the  Big  Trees  also  had  plenty  of  water  and  grew  rapidly.  Six  or 
seven  hundred  years  later  when  PalmjTa  was  abandoned  and  when 
the  Caspian  Sea  stood  15  or  more  feet  lower  than  at  present,  the  trees 
formed  only  narrow  rings,  because  the  climate  was  dry.  The  way  in 
which  the  growth  of  the  trees  has  varied  is  shown  in  Fig.  116. 
The  high  parts  of  the  curve  indicate  abundant  rainfall.  The  black 
shading  at  the  bottom  indicates  periods  of  comparative  aridity  in  the 
subtropical  belt. 

Variations  in  Climatic  Cycles  According  to  Latitude. — Climatic 
cycles,  whether  large  or  small,  produce  uniform  effects  in  suniliar 
clunatic  regions,  but  quite  different  effects  in  different  zones.  The 
wonderful  Maya  ruins  of  Guatemala,  for  example,  appear  to  indicate 
that  when  California  had  abundant  rainfall,  the  northern  parts  of 
Central  America  suffered  a  decrease.  Thus  at  the  time  of  Christ  and 
for  a  few  centuries  thereafter,  and  again  about  a.d.  1000  Guatemala 
and  Yucatan  appear  to  have  been  drier  than  now.  Many  of  the  most 
remarkable  ruins  are  located  in  places  where  the  forest  is  of  the 
equatorial  type  and  so  dense  and  malarial  that  agriculture  and  civili- 
zation are  now  apparently  impossible.  In  the  days  of  the  IMayas, 
however,  the  clmiate  was  apparently  dry  enough  so  that  conditions 
were  like  those  of  the  more  favorable  jungle  regions  instead  of  like 
those  of  the  dense  rain  forests.  All  these  changes,  both  in  the  sub- 
tropical and  equatorial  regions,  were  apparently  due  to  a  shifting  of 
the  location  of  the  climatic  belts. 

It  is  unportant  to  understand  that  the  changes  of  climate  during 
the  cycles  of  historic  times  do  not  appear  to  have  caused  great  changes 
in  temperature.  Variations  of  temperature  from  day  to  day,  how- 
ever, were  apparently  more  numerous  than  now  because  of  more  fre- 
quent cyclonic  storms  which  at  certain  times  followed  paths  nearer 
the  c(|uator  than  at  present. 

Effect  of  Climatic  Cycles  upon  Man. — (1)  IIoiv  Economic  Pros- 
perity Varies. — Climatic  changes  appear  to  have  produced  three 
kinds  of  effects,  economic,  political,  and  physical.  In  the  early  days 
of  Rome,  about  400  b.c,  five  acres  of  cultivated  land  together  with 
space  for  pasturage  was  considered  enough  to  support  a  family. 
About  200  B.C.,  however,  when  the  trees  of  California  were  growing 
particularly  slowly  and  the  lakes  of  Asia  were  dwindling,  a  gi'eat 
change  became  evident.  The  careful  agi-iculture  of  the  ))ast  with  its 
a))undant  crops  and  careful  fertilization  disai)peare(l.  The  farmei*s 
became  so  poor  that  many  of  them  gave  up  their  land,  wliicii  was  sold 
at  low  prices  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  large  owners.  The  uvw  owners 
stocked  it  with  cattle  and  shee]i  since  ordinary  fanning  did  not  ]my. 
The  people  who  remained  on  the  farms  fell  so  di'eply  into  debt  that 


372        MAX'S    K ELATION   TO   VEGETATION    ANlJ    ANIMALS 


>^  2 


P^    = 


<5 


_3         C       O 


MAN'S  CHANGING  SURROUNDINGS 


373 


they  were  almost  slaves.  ]\Iany  were  so  eager  to  escape  from  this 
condition  that  they  flocked  to  the  cities  in  search  of  work,  until  laws 
were  passetl  which  forbade  them  to  leave  their  homes.     This,  it  will 


Fig.  118. — A  Ruined  Tower  in  Eastern  Persia. 

The  town  surrounding  this  old  Mohammedan  nios<iiie  in  Scistan  lia.s  boon  abandoned  Iiorauso 
of  the  fall  in  the  level  of  the  neighboring  lake  and  tlie  cunsetiuent  lowering  of  the  water  table. 


be  seen,  is  like  what  hapi^ens  in  our  own  day  during-  diy  iicriods  in 
western  Kansas,  only  far  worse.  It  hai^,p(>ned  not  only  in  Italy,  but 
in  all  tli(>  coinitries  around  the  Ah'dit.(>nanean  S(>a  as  far  east  as  Pei-sia 
(ind  cciilral  A.sia.     Other  causes  such  as  exhaustion  of  the  soil  and  mis- 


374        MANS   liET.ATTOX    TO   VTXIKTATIOX    AND    ANIMALS 

p)V('nini('ii1  li(l])<'(l  to  ])i<i(luc('  ihcsc  hail  conditions,  but  they  would 
not  have  doiu'  so  luucli  liarm,  liad  llicy  not  liai>]^oiiO(l  (lurinfz;  tlio  diy 
]mrt  of  a  climatic  cycle. 

At  the  time  of  (  liiist  the  rcluni  of  favorable  climatic  coiiditions 
did  nmch  to  lu'l])  Rome  nn'over  her  ])rospcrity,  but  two  centuries 
later  there  Ix'gan  a  decline  in  rainfall  which  was  one  of  the  main 
causes  of  Rome's  final  collapse. 

(2)  Iloir  Political  Life  Varies. — The  drought  and  poverty  of  the 
dr>'  parts  of  climatic  cycles  are  apt  to  exaggerate  political  troubles. 
For  exaini)l(',  in  the  second  cenluiy  B.C.  the  taxes  which  the  Roman 
farmers  luid  ])reviously  paid  with  ease  from  full  gi'ain  bins  became 
ver>'  hard  to  pay  now  that  the  bins  were  half  empty.  IIcikc  IJome 
suffered  from  what  is  called  the  Slaves'  Revolt,  and  from  olher 
agi-arian  troubles.  The  famous  ( Iracchi  brothers  lost  their  lives  in  a 
vain  attempt  to  remedy  the  trouble,  but  when  the  rainfall  increased 
the  remedy  was  easy. 

Another  ]M)litical  eff(H't  of  the  diy  part  of  climatic  cycles  is  bar- 
barian in\asions.  Nomads  such  as  those  of  central  Asia  are  the 
first  to  feel  the  effect  of  increased  aridity.  The  springs  in  the  desert 
dry  up,  grass  for  ]^asturagc  is  unusually  scanty,  and  the  nomads  are 
forced  to  seek  new  i)astures.  IMany  of  the  barbarian  invasions  of 
Europe  during  the  early  part  of  the  Christian  era  appear  to  have  been 
due  to  tliis  cause.  Finally  in  the  seventh  ccntur>^  the  gi'eatest  oi  all 
out])ourings  from  the  desert  occurretl  just  at  the  tune  when  the  trees, 
the  lakes,  and  the  ruins  indicate  that  the  climate  of  subtropical  and 
desert  regions  was  driest.  Under  the  influence  of  the  IMohanunedaii 
religion  the  Arabs  surged  out  and  overwhelmed  all  the  surrounding 
regions.  Theii-  Jiew  religion  ke])t.  them  together  and  guided  ihem, 
but  the  (hyness  of  the  desert  a])i)arently  made  them  ready  for  a 
migration. 

Thus  large  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire  changed  their  i)olitical 
allegiance. 

(3)  Iloir  JIuitian  Energy  Varies. — We  have  already  seen  that 
variations  in  the  weathc^r  from  day  to  day  are  ouo  of  the  greatest 
stinndants  to  human  activity.  Apparently  the  ])art.  of  climatic 
cycieswhich  hasabundant  rain  in  sid)tro]Mcal  climat(>s  has  many  more 
storms  and  mu<h  more  variable  weathei'  than  1  he  di\-  ])art  of  I  he  cycle. 
Therefore  the  wet  jmrt  is  stinudating  and  people  ha\-e  much  energ}\ 
This  seems  to  be  one  of  the  great  reasons  why  the  ]x>oi)le  of  coun- 
tries like  (Ireece,  Palestine,  Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia  were 
much  more  energetic  in  the  past  than  at  preseid.  In  those  days  they 
apparently  had  sonu'what  the  same  kind  of  climatic  stimulus  which 
the  people  of  the  United  States  and  noilhweslei  n  Europe  now  have. 


MAN'S   CHANGING   SURROUNDINGS  375 


QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Palestine,  when  first  occupied  by  the  Chikh'en  of  Israel,  is  described  as  a 
land  flowing  with  milk  and  lioney.  A  little  furtlier  north  in  Syria,  according  to 
a  careful  American  archu'ologist,  at  about  the  time  of  (Jhrist,  "an  area  embracing 
somewhat  more  than  20,000  square  miles  was  more  thickly  populated  than  any 
area  of  similar  dimensions  in  England  or  in  the  United  kStates  is  to-day,  if  one 
excludes  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  large  modern  city  .  .  .  Mile  after  mile 
of  this  barren  gray  country  may  be  traversed  without  encountering  a  single  human 
being.  Day  after  day  may  be  spent  in  traveling  from  one  ruined  town  to  another 
without  seeing  any  green  thing  save  a  terebinth  tree  or  two  standing  among 
ruins  ....  No  soil  is  visible  an\^vhere  except  in  a  few  pockets  in  the  rock 
from  which  it  could  not  be  washed  by  the  torrential  rains  of  the  wet  season.  Yet 
every  ruin  is  surrounded  with  the  remains  of  presses  for  the  making  of  oil  and 
wine.     Only  one  oasis  has  been  discovered  in  these  high  plateaus." 

Explain  the  preceding  facts.  Show  how  and  why  man's  surroundings  in 
Palestine  and  S3Tia  have  changed  in  each  of  the  following  respects:  (a)  vege- 
tation; {b)  soil;  (c)  agriculture;  (d)  density  of  population. 

2.  Study  the  diagrams  of  rainfall  in  subtropical,  monsoon  and  mid-continental 
regions,  Figs.  83,  84,  and  94.  Show^  in  each  case  what  effect  a  diminution  of  rain- 
fall and  a  shortening  of  the  rainy  season  would  have  upon  the  following  condi- 
tions; (a)  the  seasons  of  planting  and  reaping;  (b)  the  character  of  the  crops; 
(c)  the  use  of  animals;  (d)  the  depth  of  soil  on  the  mountains.  Which  of  the  three 
kinds  of  regions  would  be  most  influenced?     Why? 

3.  In  any  volume  of  the  Mortality  AStatistics  issued  by  the  United  States  Census 
Bureau,  look  up  the  table  headed  "Deaths  by  IMonths  of  Occurrence."  Plot  the 
monthly  nimiber  of  deaths  for  the  following  places,  beginning  and  ending  each 
curve  with  January:  (a)  California;  (b)  Miimesota;  (c)  Maine;  (d)  Missouri; 
(e)  North  Carolina;  (/)  registration  cities  of  Alabama;  (g)  your  own  state  or  citj'. 
(These  diagrams  will  be  much  more  accurate  and  instructive  if  the  numbers  given 
in  the  table  are  first  divided  by  the  number  of  days  in  the  month,  and  the  results 
are  again  divided  by  the  number  of  inhabitants  reckoned  in  hundreds  of  thousands. 
This  will  give  the  number  of  deaths  per  day  for  each  himdred  thousand  people, 
and  the  resulting  curves  can  be  compared  without  the  necessitj-  of  making  allow- 
ances for  the  number  of  days  in  the  month  and  the  number  of  inhabitants.)  Inter- 
pret each  curve  as  follows:  (1)  Which  seasons  are  best  and  worst  respective!}'  and 
how  much  do  they  differ  in  percentages?  (2)  What  effect  is  produced  by  the  onset 
of  warm  weather?  By  the  continuance  of  such  weather?  (3)  The  same  for 
cold  weather.  (4)  Sum  up  the  effect  of  the  changes  of  the  seasons  in  each  ca.se, 
and  show  where  the  effect  is  greatest.  Be  sure  to  make  full  allowance  for  the 
numlx>r  of  inliabitants,  for  otherwise  a  small  state  or  city  will  invariably  appear 
more  healthful  than  a  large  one. 

4.  Discuss  Fig.  100,  as  an  illustration  of  a  geograi)hic  variable. 

f).  Describe  in  detail  some  variable  geographic  factor  with  which  you  arc 
familiar,  and  discuss  its  effect. 


PART  VIIl 
MAN'S  RELATION  TO  MAN 


CHAPTER  XXI 
POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

In  all  parts  of  the  world  geographical  suj'roimdings  have  a  strong 
influence  on  political  conditions.  This  is  equally  true  among  primi- 
tive people  and  among  those  most  highlj^  advanced.  For  example,  in 
eastern  Pei-sia  the  chief  poUtical  idea  of  the  primitive  "Fowlei-s"  who 
live  on  birds  and  cattle  in  the  vast  swamps  of  Seistan  is  to  evade  pay- 
ing taxes.  This  is  because  they  are  easily  able  to  hide  themselves 
and  their  simple  belongings  among  the  tall  reeds  where  the  tax  col- 
lector cannot  find  them.  The  settled  agricultural  people  on  the  open 
irrigated  lands  not  far  away,  on  the  contrary,  look  upon  taxes  as  no 
less  inevitable  than  the  seasons,  for  their  environment  furnishes  no 
way  of  escape.  Among  advanced  people  environment  produces  a 
similar  political  effect  when  it  causes  the  coastal  sections  of  a  countiy 
to  vote  for  ship  subsidies,  while  the  interior  is  strongly  against 
them.  Each  of  the  great  elements  of  geographical  environment 
plays  its  part  in  causing  political  differences,  for  location,  land  forms, 
water  bodies,  soil  and  minerals,  climate,  and  plants  and  animals  all 
make  some  people  want  the  govermnent  to  act  in  one  way  and  some 
in  another. 

(1)  Why  the  East  and  the  West  Differ  as  to  Immigration. — The 
opposed  desires  of  the  East  and  AVest  of  the  United  States  as  to  immi- 
gration well  illustrate  the  political  effect  of  location.  'I  h(>  western 
United  States,  which  faces  Asia,  does  not  want  Asiatic  iimnigrants. 
Its  people  feel  so  keenly  on  this  question  that  some  of  lluin  have 
engaged  in  riots  against  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  ha\e  com- 
pelled the  countiy  as  a  whole  to  adopt  the  policy  of  excluding  these 
races.  The  East,  because  it  faces  Europe,  is  indifferent  al>out  Asi- 
atics, but  is  intensely  interested  in  I^urojiean  inunigration.  For  many 
yeai's  the  East  wanted  as  man^^  innnigrants  as  possil)le,  and  hence 
was  against  all  restrictions.     Now,  however,  the  East  is  in  nmcli  more 

377 


378  MAX'S  ri:latk)X  to  max 

danpcr  from  undrsirable  Lmmigjants  than  is  the  West.  Hence  in 
ahiiost  every  session  of  Congress  Eastern  niembei-s  introduce  bills 
to  restrict  Ilurojx'un  in  mil  juration.  They  feel  that  unless  the  level 
of  the  iiiiinip;rants  from  the  backward  countries  of  eastern  Europe  is 
raised,  this  country  will  soon  find  itself  greatly  injured  because  of  the 
dull  minds  inherited  by  great  nmnbers  of  its  citizens. 

Why  the  Coast  and  Interior  Differ  as  to  Congressional  Appropria- 
tions.— Although  the  Ivist  and  the  West  differ  as  to  inunigration 
because  they  face  different  oceans,  they  agi-ee  with  one  another  and 
differ  from  the  interior  of  the  United  States  as  to  spending  money  for 
harbors,  because  they  are  both  on  the  sea-coast.  Both  East  and  West 
want  large  aiijiroiiriations  for  the  navj',  for  coast  defenses,  for  harbor 
development,  and  for  the  encouragement  of  foreign  trade.  The  inte- 
rior States,  howe^■er,  are  inclined  to  say  that  the  United  States  is  so 
strong  and  rich  that  no  power  will  ever  dare  attack  us,  and  the  coun- 
try will  prosper  no  matter  whether  the  government  helps  foreign 
ti*ade  or  not.  ^^'hat  they  want  is  large  appropriations  for  river  im- 
provement, national  highways,  irrigation  projects,  forest  reser\-es, 
and  national  parks.  They  say  that  if  vast  sums  are  spent  to  deepen 
harbors  on  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  coasts,  equally  large  smiis  ought  to 
be  spent  for  improvements  in  States  which  have  no  water-borne 
conmierce. 

This  conflict  of  interests  often  leads  to  log-rolling  and  results  in 
the  so-called  pork-barrel  bill.  Unscrujiulous  congressmen  try  to  get 
appropriations  for  some  project  in  tlu>ir  own  district  no  matter 
whether  it  is  good  or  bad,  and  all  sorts  of  foolish  compromises  are  the 
result.  It  is  a  grave  mistake  to  think  that  money  should  be  sjx-nt  in 
one's  own  jxirticular  State  whether  it  ])r()duces  national  ]>enefit  or 
not.  Pe< )])](•  who  do  this  overlook  the  fact  that  money  sjient  on 
New  York  Harbor,  for  example,  is  a  direct  benefit  to  (  liicago,  St. 
Louis,  and  almost  every  part  of  the  country,  because  it  stimulates 
trade  and  reduces  the  price  of  imported  goods.  In  the  same  way  the 
coast  States  err  when  they  opjiose  the  spending  of  monej^  for  irriga- 
tion or  foi-  the  l)uil(litig  of  gi'eat  national  highways.  It  is  time  for 
Americans  to  give  up  the  jn-ejudices  and  gnH'd  wliicli  s]iriiig  from  their 
location  and  ask  only  whetiier  a  given  ]iroj('(t  will  be  :i  txncfil  to  the 
nation  as  a  wliolc,  no  mat  (ci-  where  t  he  iiioiu^y  may  Ix'  sjieiit . 

How  Belgium  became  a  Victim  to  Location. — lielgiuni  illustrates 
the  efVecf  of  location  in  (|uite  a  different  way.  Because  she  is  located 
between  Germany  and  France  and  on  the  best  route  from  one  to  the 
other,  CJermany  sent  her  armies  across  that  Httlc  country  in  1914. 
Thus  Belgium,  in  a  (piaiTel  with  which  she  had  nothing  whatever  to 
do,  sufferetl  the  loss  not  only  of  hundieds  of  tliousaiids  of  men  but  of 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  379 

a  multitude  of  women  and  children.  Through  starvation,  oppression, 
and  cruelty  her  people  suffered  as  nmch  as  any  of  the  chief  parties 
to  the  quarrel  except  northern  France.  She  also  lost  an  enormous 
quantity  of  machinery  and  treasure;  her  factories  were  ruined,  and 
her  material  progress  set  back  for  decades. 

(2)  How  Relief  Influences  Political  Allegiance. — ^While  location 
causes  political  differences  chiefly  between  people  who  live  at  some 
distance  from  one  another,  the  form  of  the  land  may  cause  equally 
great  differences  between  those  in  closely  neighbormg  regions.  In 
the  Civil  War  the  main  line  of  cleavage  was  between  the  North  and 
the  South,  but  within  the  South  the  relief  of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains caused  a  split  between  the  highlands  and  the  lowlands.  The 
liighlanders,  by  reason  of  their  geographical  surroundings,  were  poor 
and  scattered,  and  their  farms  were  small  and  unproductive.  They 
could  not  raise  large  amounts  of  money-making  crops  like  cotton 
and  tobacco.  Hence  slave  la])or  did  not  pay.  Moreover,  the 
mountaineers  did  not  have  the  capital  to  purchase  slaves.  Hence 
throughout  the  whole  Appalachian  region  from  West  Virginia  south- 
ward the  mountaineers  did  not  agree  with  the  slave-owning  plains- 
men, and  would  not  consent  to  secede.  Manj^  of  them  joined 
the  Northern  army,  and  all  welcomed  the  coming  of  Northern 
troops. 

How  Relief  Keeps  the  Balkan  Problem  Astir. — On  a  map  of  the 
Balkans  notice  the  numerous  mountain  ranges,  and  the  many  direc- 
tions in  which  the\'  run.  Between  them  lie  numerous  plains,  some 
of  considera]:)le  size  like  those  of  eastern  Roumelia  in  Bulgaria,  and 
others  mere  little  pockets  among  the  mountains. 

Into  this  region  have  come  many  sorts  of  people.  Some,  like  the 
Turks,  have  found  a  resting-place  here  when  want  and  famine  or  hos- 
tile invasions  caused  them  to  migrate  from  Asia  to  Em-o{)e.  Others, 
such  as  the  Jugo-slavs,  have  been  forced  out  of  the  plains  of  eastern 
Europe  by  similar  causes.  Thus  IMontenegrins,  Albanians,  Serbians, 
Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Turks,  Wallachs,  and  Roimianians  are  inex- 
tricably mixed.  In  a  broad  plain  these  people  might  gradually  have 
become  more  or  less  unified  as  have  the  races  from  which  sjn-ung  the 
English  or  the  French.  Each  little  valley  or  ])lain  in  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  however,  is  more  or  less  isolated  by  a  mountain  wall,  so 
that  the  various  races  preserve  their  own  social,  political,  and  religious 
characteristics.  Consequently  they  engage  in  ahnost  continual 
quarrels.  In  addition  to  this,  all  alike  have  been  discontented  because 
of  the  poverty  which  generally  prevails  among  moimtains,  and  luu-e 
been  inclined  to  attribute  their  troubles  to  tlieii*  neighbors  or  to  the 
government. 


380  MAX'S   RELATIOX   TO   MAN 

I'or  .'ill  tl»(>so  reasons  llic  P):ilkans  havo  always  ]ilay(*cl  a  trou1)lo- 
soinc  role  in  lMn-()])('.  The  Turks,  when  tliev  wvvv  in  ]iowor,  abused 
and  massacred  \\\v  ("hrislian  races  until  they  ajjpealed  to  the  ])owei-s 
of  Europe  for  ])i-()lect  ion.  W  hen  1  he  ( 'hristians  became  su])reine,  they 
often  ill-treated  the  Turks.  ^Moreover,  the  Christians  have  alnised 
one  another  most  cruelly  because  of  differences  in  creeil,  lan«fuage, 
and  race.  First  one  (Ireat.  Power,  then  another,  and  finally  all 
top^ther  have  tried  to  brinji;  order  out  of  the  Balkan  chaos,  but 
always  the  mountains  and  the  conditions  which  jjo  with  them  have 
baffled  such  attem])ts.  Austria,  took  possession  of  llie  ])id\iiices  of 
Bosnia  and  Dalmatia  and  gave  them  a  stable  but  rc^pressive  ficncrn- 
ment.  but  the  mountaineers  did  not  like  foreign  rule,  and  the  Ser])ians 
of  Serl)ia  were  <'oiitiiuialK'  inciliuij;  their  fellow  Sei'bians  of  the  Aus- 
trian ])rovinces  against  the  government.  Troubles  of  this  kind  in 
l',)14  w<n-e  the  hmnediate  cause  of  the  Clreat  War,  although  other  and 
dee]X'r  factoi-s  were  still  more  miportant.  When  Austria  demanded  a 
reckoning  with  Serbia  the  Russians  stood  bj^  that  little  Balkan 
country  and  thus  the  great  conflict  was  precipitated. 

After  the  war  the  various  Slavic  races  of  the  nortlnnn  P)alkans 
united  in  the  re]iublic  of  Jugo-Slavia,  while  I^ulgaria,  Poumania,  and 
(Jreece  remained  nuich  as  before.  At  once,  however,  there  arose  great 
difficulties  because  Bulgaria  and  especially  Jugo-Slavia  c^ach  ne(Mled 
an  outlet  to  the  sea,  whiU>  (ireece  and  Italy  wished  to  keep  control  of 
the  whole  yEgean  and  Adriatic  coasts.  Jugo-Slavia  and  Italy  almost 
went  to  war  over  the  port  of  Fiume,  because  this  was  ahnost 
the  only  place  where  the  relief  gave  Jugo-Shuia  an  outU^t  to 
tlie  sea. 

(3)  Russia\s  Thwarted  Ejjorh  to  Gain  a  Good  Sea  Frontage. — 
Russia  furnishes  a  good  exam])le  of  the  effect  of  bodies  of  irater  upon 
pf)litical  relations.  That  count ly  has  the  longest  coastline  of  any 
counti-y  in  the  world,  but  most  of  it  is  useless.  Let  us  considei-  each 
of  the  four  coasts:  (a)  The  Western  coast,  bordering  on  the  l^altic 
Sea,  has  a  twofold  disadvantage.  First,  the  ports  are  closed  by  ice 
from  tiln-ee  to  fiN'e  months  or  more  in  the  \\inler.  Second,  all  the 
conunerce  bound  for  tlu^  ()])en  ocean  nuist  i)ass  through  the  nari'ow 
straits  at  the  western  end  of  tlie  Baltic,  which  can  easily  be  blocked 
by  an  enemy.  Dtn-ing  the  (Ireat  War  ( ieiiiiany  was  easily  able  to 
close  the  Baltic  com])letely  to  Russian  conunerce.  In  spite  of  these 
disadvantages  Petiograd,  the  chief  seaport  of  Russia,  lies  on  this 
coast. 

(Ij)  The  whole  vast  northern  coast  of  Eurojie  and  Asia  is  prac- 
tically useless.  During  the  (Ireat  A\'ar  the  closing  of  the  I^altic  by 
Germany  compelled    Prussia  to  use   the  western  ])art  of  her  bleak 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  381 

Twrthern  coasts  during  the  short  open  season.  The  ports  of  Mur- 
mansk and  Archangel  assmned  a  temporary  importance,  but  this 
vanished  with  the  n^turn  of  peace. 

(c)  On  the  east,  that  is,  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Siberia,  Russia  is 
hampered  only  a  little  less  than  on  tlu^  north.  I]vcn  as  far  south  as 
Vladivostok  the  ports  are  troubled  by  ice  for  four  or  more  months  in 
the  winter,  and  conunerce  is  impeded.  Therefore  in  1895  Russia 
obtained  from  China  the  right  to  Ijuild  a  railroad  through  Manchuria, 
and  to  hold  an  ice-free  outlet  to  the  open  sea  at  Port  Arthur.  She 
held  tliis  desirable  harbor  only  a  few  years,  however,  for  Jajian  had 
long  coveted  it  and  was  desirous  of  asserting  her  influence  in  the 
northern  parts  of  China.  Accordingly,  Japan  declared  war  and  ex- 
pelled Russia  from  the  coast  of  southern  Manchuria. 

(d)  On  the  south  Russia's  only  sea-coast  was  for  a  long  time  on  the 
inland  Caspian  Sea  and  on  the  Black  Sea,  whose  only  outlet  to  the 
open  ocean  is  through  the  narrow  strait  of  the  Bosphorus  at  Con- 
stantinople. Since  the  Turks  held  Constantinople  and  there  seemed 
no  prospect  of  obtaining  a  free  outlet  there,  the  Russians  again  and 
again  considered  the  project  of  an  advance  across  Persia  or  Afghanis- 
tan in  order  to  reach  the  Pei-sian  Gulf  or  the  Arabian  Sea.  In  spite 
of  some  progi'ess,  however,  they  never  succeeded,  partly  because  of 
England's  strenuous  diplomatic  opposition,  but  also  because  the  des- 
erts and  mountains  of  Persia  are  serious  obstacles  to  railroad  build- 
ing. Because  of  her  inal^ility  to  gain  a  desirable  seacoast  Russia  has 
been  gi-eatly  hampered.  This  cut  her  off  from  the  rest  of  the  Allies 
dm'ing  the  Great  War,  and  the  isolation  thus  caused  was  a  gi'eat 
factor  in  her  collapse  and  in  the  spread  of  Bolshevism. 

The  Rivalry  of  England  and  Russia  in  the  Waters  of  Southwestern 
Asia. — lOngland  has  generally  op})osed  Ivussia's  ])lans  to  rcacii  a 
favorable  seacoast  because  their  success  might  threaten  British  rule 
in  India.  For  a  long  time  l']ngland  feared  that  war  might  arise  with 
Russia.  If  that  hai^pened  a  strong  Russian  fleet  coming  out  of  the 
Black  Sea  or  from  a  good  base  on  the  Persian  coast  might  close  the 
Suez  Canal,  cut  England's  conununication  with  India,  and  cripi)le 
the  Britisii  Empire.  For  that  reason  luigland  for  many  y(>ai"s  sup- 
ported Turkey,  and  insisted  that  Russia  and  the  otiier  Great  Powers 
sign  a  tr(\it\'  which  agrecnl  that  in  tijne  of  war  the  Bosjihorus  and 
Dardanelk^s  should  generally  remain  closed  to  the  passage  of  all  war- 
ships except  those  of  Turk(>y.  I'or  the  same  reason  England  us(>d 
even'  possible  means  to  strengthen  her  influence  in  Pei-sia.  The 
Great  War  and  the  common  enmity  against  (iermany,  however,  con- 
verted this  rivalry  of  England  and  Russia  info  friendship.  Xt)w  the 
infe]-nationalization  of  Constantin<)])le  and  the  collapse  of  Russian 


382  MAN'S   RELATlUX    TU    MAX 

ani])iti()iis  for  oxpaiisloii  havo  frood  England  from  all  fear  of  Kussia 
l\y  sea. 

How  England's  Relation  to  the  Sea  has  Spread  British  Invest- 
ments Worldwide. — Englanil's  relation  to  Russia  is  only  one  phase  of 
iier  interest  in  sea  jiower.  II(m-  activity  by  sea  has  not  onlj'  given 
Great  Britain  the  gi'catcst  colonial  enii:>ire,  but  has  led  the  British  to 
make  investments  in  every  corner  of  the  world.  Before  other  great 
nations  were  ready  to  do  so  she  was  al)le  to  carry  the  world's  trade 
and  thereby  built  u])  p'cat  fortunes  from  the  jirofits  on  freight.  Be- 
cause she  hatl  suri)lus  capital  from  those  sources  and  from  her  man- 
ufactures and  also  because  her  abundant  means  of  comnumication 
by  sea  kept  hf>r  in  touch  with  all  parts  of  the  world  British  capital  has 
been  invested  in  all  kinds  of  enteri)rises  from  CajM'  Horn  to  Alaska 
and  from  New  Zealand  to  Norway.  These  investments  kee])  her 
])ernianently  interested  not  only  in  her  colonies,  but  in  every  other 
part  of  the  world,  and  thus  give  the  British  a  broad  interest  in  world 
politics  quite  tUffercnt  from  the  proA'incial  mterests  of  most  people  who 
live  far  from  the  sea, 

Germany's  Challenge  of  British  Sea  Power, — Great  Britain  and 
Russia  are  not  the  only  nations  that  appreciate  the  value  of  suprem- 
acy ui)()n  the  sea.  Germany's  eagerness  in  this  respect  was  one 
of  the  causes  of  the  Great  War.  Cramped  and  overcrowded  con- 
ditions in  Germany  because  of  the  rapid  growth  of  population  and  the 
limitations  of  the  frontiers  led  the  whole  country  to  agi'ee  with  the 
far-seeing  Bisniarck  when  he  said,  "The  futin'(>  of  Germany  lies  u])on 
the  sea."  A  givat  merchant  marine  was  rapidl}'  built,  and  a  large 
navy  to  protect  it.  At  the  same  tunc  an  attempt  was  nvMh  to  obtain 
colonies  and  to  foster  foreign  trade.  Such  activities  aroused  British 
jealousy.  The  luiglish  know  that  the  strength  of  their  empire  de- 
))ends  ujxni  the  protection  of  the  Unes  of  conmiunication  between 
tiie  island  center  and  the  great  dependencies  in  all  ])arts  of  the  world. 
If  any  otlier  ])ower  or  combination  of  i)owers  should  overcome  the 
British  navy,  tiie  l'jn])ire  would  ciunible  to  pieces.  The  fear  that 
Germany  might  in  time  ])v  strong  enough  to  bring  about  such  a  result 
was  one  reason  why  Ijigland  gave  \\p  her  hostility  to  Kussia  at  the 
beginning  of  tlu^  present  century  and  joined  with  that  country  anc', 
France  to  form  the  Triple  Entente  as  a  balance  to  the  Triple  AlUanee 
of  CJermany,  Austria,  and  Italy. 

In  the  ]):ist  the  great  nations  of  the  woild  lia\-e  di\ide(l  the  land 
among  thejnselves.  To-day  they  are  also  taking  the  sea  mider  their 
dominion,  "^i'luis  metluxls  of  using  the  sea  are  beginning  to  ])lay  a 
large  ])art  in  the  ])olili(;il  discussions  of  many  countries.  Japan,  for 
exaini)le,  as  well  as  Prussia,   England,  and  Gennany  is  keenly  desir- 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  383 

ous  to  gain  wealth  and  influence  from  the  sea.  This  is  natural  in  view 
of  her  island  character.  The  example  of  all  these  countries  and  the 
need  of  abundant  ships  during  the  Great  War  has  led  the  United 
States  to  build  not  nierclj^  a  strong  navy,  but  a  great  merchant 
marine.  Otherwise  we  should  have  been  in  danger  of  losing  much  of 
our  influence. 

(4)  The  Ownership  of  Minerals  as  a  Political  Problem. — In  some 
countries  such  as  England  the  owner  of  a  piet-e  of  land  is  supposed  to 
own  ever}i:hing  from  the  surface  down  to  the  center  of  the  earth. 
In  other  places,  such  as  many  of  our  Western  States,  he  owns  the  soil, 
the  water,  the  stones,  and  all  the  rights  that  are  needed  for  agri- 
culture, house-building,  or  other  orchnary  pursuits,  but  does  not  own 
the  minerals  that  are  extracted  by  mining.  They  belong  to  anyone 
who  discovers  their  presence  and  files  the  proper  claims.  In  still 
other  regions  such  as  Argentina,  Italy,  Germany,  and  Mexico,  the 
minerals  belong  to  the  state,  and  can  be  mined  onl}-  on  proper  pay- 
ment to  the  government. 

Many  thoughtful  people  think  that  in  our  own  country  this  last 
sj^stem  should  be  followed,  since  they  believe  it  is  not  right  that  a 
man  should  make  milUons  simply  because  he  happens  to  be  able  to 
file  a  claim  to  a  niineral  deposit,  while  another  who  works  harder  and 
with  much  more  intelligence  makes  only  a  fair  living.  Hence  the 
Govermnent  has  withdrawn  large  areas  of  mineral  lands,  that  is,  it  has 
said  that  for  the  present  they  shall  not  be  gi-anted  to  individuals.  In 
both  this  country  and  England  there  has  been  much  agitation  for  the 
nationaUzation  of  the  coal  mines.  The  supporters  of  this  idea  say 
that  minerals  like  coal  and  petrolemn  are  so  important  and  so  easily 
exhausted  that  the  State  ought  to  guard  them.  Others  say  that 
government  ownership  would  be  unjust  and  would  cause  the  mines  to 
be  worked  inefficiently  and  wastefully.  Some  people  take  a  middle 
ground  and  say  that  the  best  plan  is  that  the  government  should  own 
the  mines,  but  should  allow  private  companies  to  operate  tliem  on 
the  payment  of  a  royalty  or  percentage  of  the  profit.  These  differing 
views  cause  the  ownership  of  minerals  to  be  an  inijiortant  political 
question  not  only  in  the -United  States,  but  in  England  and  else- 
where. 

Why  Black  England  Wants  Free  Trade  and  Green  England 
Protection. — The  soil  and  minerals  of  lOngland  have  giM>n  rise  to 
one  of  the  chief  political  problems,  a  i)roblem  which  has  agi- 
tated the  country  for  a  century  and  is  not  j-et  settled.  "Black  Eng- 
land" is  the  smoky  industrial  and  mining  section  located  chiefly 
in  the  uplands  of  the  center,  but  lunning  from  Cardiff  in  South 
Wales   to   Yorkshire   in   the  nortli.     'Hicre   minerals  are   the  chief 


384  MAN'S   RKLATIOX   TO   MAN 

soiirco  of  wealth.  "ClvctMi  England"  is  the  agi'icultural  plain  of  the 
cast  and  soutii  where  the  soil  is  the  chief  soinro  of  livelihood.  The 
greatest  need  of  the  manufacturing  antl  mining  po])ulation  is  an 
aliundance  of  cheap  food.  Therefore  Black  England  is  eager  for 
free  trade,  so  thai  it  may  hnport  food  without  paying  duties.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  farmers  and  landownei-s  of  CJrcen  Ijigland  see  the 
matter  quite  differently.  They  cannot  compete  with  the  wheat  of 
the  great  ]ilains  in  countries  like  Canada,  Argentina,  and  Russia.  If 
they  could  im])ose  a  tluty  on  imports  of  food,  however,  the  price  of 
agricultural  ])roducts  would  rise,  and  the  owners  and  tillers  of  farms 
would  ))r()s])er.  Hence  the  slogan  of  Green  England  has  been  "Pro- 
tection and  Prosperity."  Thus  the  contrast  l)etween  the  minerals 
of  Black  England  and  the  soil  of  Green  England  has  often  led  to  a 
main  line  of  cleavage  between  the  two  chief  British  political  parties. 
The  consequent  tariff  ])roblem  can  never  be  solved  to  eveiyone's 
satisfaction,  for  the  minerals  and  the  soil  will  always  lead  to  diver- 
sity of  interests  and  hence  to  differences  in  politics.  Since  manu- 
facturing and  mining,  however,  employ  many  more  people  then 
agriculture,  free  trade  is  likely  to  continue  as  it  has  for  several  gen- 
erations. 

(5)  How  a  Difference  of  Climate  led  to  the  Civil  War. — Climate,  like 
other  geogi-aphical  conditions,  has  a  strong  effect  upon  political  rela- 
tions. The  clunate  of  the  Southern  States  causes  them  to  be  one  of 
the  best  places  in  the  world  for  the  highly  profitable  crops  of  cotton 
and  tobacco.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  this  fact  has  in  one  way  been 
a  decided  disadvantage  for  it  lead  to  the  introduction  of  negro  slavery. 
The  early  settlei-s  soon  found  that  they  could  make  great  i^rofit  out 
of  tobacco  if  only  they  had  laborers,  and  when  cotton  became  still 
more  profitable  the  need  of  laborers  increased.  Since  white  people 
of  the  Northern  races  generally  become  sickly  if  they  work  nuich 
out-of-dooi-s  in  the  South,  e<|)eciall>-  in  suuinicr,  owiiei-s  of  largo 
farms  or  plantations  began  bi-jnging  black  slaves  from  Africa. 

No  one  then  thought  this  wrong.  In  early  days  slaves  were  held 
among  the  Puritans  of  New  England  as  well  as  among  the  people  of 
the  South.  In  the  North,  however,  slave  labor  did  not  pay.  To  get 
a  living  from  the  soil  demanded  hard,  steady  work,  for  which  the 
slaves  were  not  fit.  A  slave  ate  as  much  as  a  white  man,  and  wasted 
much  more.  In  the  Northern  States  it  w^as  actually  more  ])rofitable 
to  hire  a  white  man  than  to  own  a  slave.  Hence  slavery  ditl  not  long 
survive. 

In  the  South,  on  the  contraiy,  slavery  was  profital)le.  The  white 
man  was  not  at  his  best  becanse  of  the  long  summer.  A  slave,  how- 
ever, ciiulil  d(i  iintrc  than  in  llic  North  because  there  was  no  severe 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  385 

winter  to  hinder  hini.  In  the  Southern  cUmate  even  the  labor  of  an 
inefficient  slave  furnished  more  than  enough  to  support  himself  and 
his  family,  and  the  work  of  other  members  of  the  family  swelled  the 
profit  to  the  owner.  This  was  especially  true  when  the  prices  of  to- 
bacco and  cotton  were  high.  Therefore,  in  the  South  slavery  per- 
sisted. 

While  slavery  thus  became  entrenched  in  the  South  the  world  was 
gradually  becoming  convinced  that  hmnan  slavery  is  wrong.  This 
conviction  easily  spread  in  the  North  but  failed  to  make  headway  in 
the  South  since  the  people  were  blinded  ])y  their  great  profits.  Hence 
for  a  tune  Anti-slavery  and  Pro-slavery  dominated  the  politics  of  the 
whole  country  and  finally  brought  on  the  Civil  War.  That  terrible 
struggle  would  never  have  occurred  but  for  the  mai'ked  climatic 
contrast  between  the  North  and  the  South.  Even  to-day  the  politi- 
cal divergence  arising  from  the  difference  in  climate  between  the 
North  and  the  South  still  persists  in  the  fact  that  the  Democrats 
count  on  the  vote  of  the  "solid  South,"  while  the  chief  strength  of 
11^  Repubhcans  is  in  the  North. 

(6)  How  GeograpJnj  Donihiates  the  Tariff  Question  in  American 
Politics. — -IMany  people  suppose  that  they  believe  in  free  trade  or  pro- 
tection because  of  principles  of  general  justice.  The  vast  majority, 
however,  hold  one  belief  or  the  other  simply  l>ecause  of  the  place 
where  they  Uve  or  the  occupation  that  they  follow.  The  plants  and 
animals  that  grow  in  a  place  or  are  used  in  its  industries  influence  our 
beliefs  far  more  than  any  amount  of  theoretical  argument. 

As  a  congressman  once  put  it:  "We  are  not  patriots  in  our  treat- 
ment of  the  tariff.  We  forget  the  good  of  the  country  as  a  whole, 
and  think  only  of  what  products  we  want  free  or  protected  because  of 
the  geographical  conditions  in  our  particular  part  of  the  country." 
The  following  examples  of  things  that  have  actually  happened  in 
Congi'css  when  a  tariff  bill  has  Ixnm  under  discussion  illustrate  his 
words.  (1)  A  IVIassachusetts  Hepublican,  although  belonging  to  the 
party  that  advocates  protection,  demanded  that  hides  be  placed  on 
the  free  list.  He  came  from  a  shoe  manufacturing  region.  At  the 
same  tune  a  Texas  Democrat  whose  party  believes  in  free  trade, 
insisted  that  the  duty  on  hides  be  increased.  The  plains  of  Texas  arc 
excellent  for  cattle,  and  a  high  duty  on  hid(>s  would  increase^  the  j^rice 
of  their  sldns.  (2)  A  South  CaroUna  Democrat  demanded  a  pro- 
tective duty  on  rice.  (3)  When  the  tariff  on  sugar  was  icduccd  by  the 
Democrats  the  Louisiana  Democrats  and  the  Michigan  I\e])ul»li('ans, 
representing  cane  sugar  and  beet  sugar,  united  in  op])osing  the 
measure  tooth  and  nail.  (4)  Senators  from  the  Rocky  IMountains 
dwelt  ujMjn  the  ijuportance  of  protection  of  wool.     (5)  Tiie  rcjire- 


3S6  MAN'S   IJKT.ATIOX   TO    MAN 

scntativos  from  California  doiuaiulcMl  protoctioii  of  lemons.  (G) 
Minerals  liavc  tho  same  cfToct  as  ])lants  and  animals.  I'or  when  the 
Hepuhlicans  voted  for  free  coal  a  Pennsylvania  Kei)iil)H(aii  ('eclared 
that  this  was  a  repudiation  by  his  party  of  its  policy  of  protection. 

In  general  each  ]mrt  of  the  countiy  wants  protection  and  hifi;h 
prices  for  the  thin}j:s  that  it  jiroduces,  and  free  trade  and  low  prices  for 
the  things  which  it  must  luin^-  fiom  elsewhere.  Manufacturers 
generally  want  a  tariff  on  mnimiact  ui-ed  uoods  and  free  trade  for 
raw  materials  and  food,  'i'hc  rich  ;mii(iilt  mal  States  of  the  Miss- 
issijii^i  \'alley  generally  want  low  (hitics  on  iii;iinil;ni  urcd  goods  and 
high  duli(>s  on  food.  The  Soiitliciii  States  in  geneial  favor  free 
trade  l)ecaus(>  they  luiim-  ])ia(ti(ally  all  I  heir  manufactured  goods 
from  a  distance.  Free  trade  does  not  alter  materially  the  price  of 
their  one  large  export,  cotton,  because  other  ])aTts  of  the  world  have 
not  enough  to  export  to  America. 

How  the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  Sprung  from  the  Isolation  of  the 
New  World. — ^Thc  Alonroe  Doctrine,  like  the  whole  ))roblem  of  bound- 
aries, depends  on  a  number  of  geographical  conditions.  According 
to  this  doctrine  no  nation  outside  of  America  is  allowed  to  obtain  new 
territorj''  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  or  to  establish  a  new  govern- 
ment over  any  part  of  it.  The  United  States  took  the  lead  in  this 
movement  of  America  for  the  Americans  partly  because  this  count i>- 
is  located  in  the  most  stimulating  climate  of  the  New  World,  ^^'e 
were  able  to  maintain  it  partl}^  because  the  wide  Atlantic  separates  the 
Americas  from  Europe.  The  IMonroe  Doctrine  was  first  declared  in 
1823  when  the  South  American  countries  had  revolted  from  Spain 
and  were  establishing  republics.  At  that  tune  there  was  danger  that 
I']in*o))ean  countries  would  take  ix)ssession  of  South  .America  as  they 
later  took  possession  of  Africa.  The  United  States  did  not  wish  this, 
for  the  people  here  Ix^lieved  in  self-government  and  wanted  those  of 
South  America  to  Ikuc  an  o])port unity  to  try  it  for  themselves. 

If  South  Aiiiciica  had  been  as  close  to  Europe  as  is  Africa,  this 
country  could  not  lia\('  ))revented  iMigland,  Germany,  France,  and 
other  ]^uro])eaii  ])o\vers  from  taking  ])arts  of  Latin  America.  So 
much  time,  e\i)ense,  and  danger,  however,  are  involved  in  trans- 
porting an  ariii\'  across  the  sea  that  no  European  power  thought  it 
worth  while  to  go  to  war  with  us  in  order  to  obtain  colonies.  Thus 
South  America  was  left  to  tiy  its  own  experiments  in  self-govern- 
ment. 

Through  the  Monroe  Doctrme  we  have  as  it  weic,  ])l(>dg(Ml  our- 
selves to  see  that  the  ex])erijnent  of  self-goveinment  has  a  tlKU'ough 
trial.  This,  however,  ]ilaces  on  us  a  heavy  responsibility.  Judging 
by  India,  l'-gy])t,  South  Afii<'a,  and  other  P>i-itish  colonies  as  well  as  by 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  387 

French  Tripoli  and  the  Dutch  Islands  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  the  more 
tropical  portions  of  South  /jnerica  would  to-day  be  better  'governed, 
more  prosperous,  and  more  peaceful  than  at  present  if  they  were  held 
by  such  an  enlightened  colonial  power  as  Britain.  Therefore  be- 
cause the  sea  has  enabled  us  to  say  ''Hands  off"  to  Europe  we  are 
bound  to  see  that  no  part  of  Latin  America  is  the  loser  on  this  ac- 
count. We  do  not  want  to  govern  the  Latin  Americans  or  take  their 
territory.  To  do  so  would  be  a  burden  to  us  and  would  prevent  them 
from  learning  through  experience.  We  should  be  equally  carc^ful 
not  to  exploit  their  wealth  selfishly,  although  it  is  inevitable  that  the 
development  of  their  resources  should  come  largely  through  foreignere. 

Without  governing  or  exploiting  the  backward  parts  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere  we  can  help  them  in  a  thousand  ways.  We  owe 
it  to  them  and  to  the  rest  of  the  world  to  see  that  they  have  stable, 
just  govermnents,  such  as  we  are  trying  to  support  in  Cuba.  Wo 
can  serve  them  greatly  by  teaching  them  to  observe  the  difficult  laws 
of  health  and  sanitation,  as  at  Panama;  we  can  do  much  by  means  of 
schools  and  education  to  arouse  them  from  the  inertia  which  is  so 
common  in  tropical  climates,  as  many  missionaries  are  doing  in 
Mexico;  we  can  assist  in  improving  their  homes,  their  business 
methods,  and  all  the  other  factors  which  make  up  a  healthful,  vigorous 
civilization,  as  a  great  American  fruit  company  is  doing  in  Guate- 
mala, Costa  Rica,  and  elsewhere.  We  need  not  expect  thanks  for  all 
this,  yet  we  must  do  it  not  merely  because  in  the  long  run  it  will  be 
best  for  us  as  well  as  for  them,  but  because  the  presence  of  the  sea 
has  caused  us  to  establish  the  ]\Ionroe  Doctrine  and  thus  to  take  upon 
ourselves  the  protection  of  the  weak  and  the  oppressed  on  this  sid(>  of 
the  Atlantic. 

The  Relation  of  Geography  to  Political  Boundaries:  The  Value 
of  Mountains  as  Political  Boundaries. — Many  iJoHtical  effects  s])iing 
from  a  great  variety  of  geographical  causes.  Boundaries,  for  example, 
depend  on  land  forms,  water  bodies,  soil,  minerals,  climate,  vegetation, 
and  even  on  the  distribution  of  animals.  Alountains  determine  ])()lit- 
ical  boundaries  more  often  than  does  any  other  geogi'aphical  feature 
except  the  seacoast.  This  is  because  they  possess  a  number  of  dis- 
tinct advantages:  (1)  They  form  barrici*s  which  naturally  separate 
the  people  on  the  two  sides;  (2)  a  mountain  boundaiy  usually  lies  in 
unoccupied  lands  which  have  no  great  value;  (3)  the  crest  of  a  moun- 
tain range  is  usually  well  defined,  so  that  there  is  little  question  as  to 
where  the  boundary  lies;  (4)  sucli  a  l)ouiidaiy  is  not  subject  to  changes 
like  those  of  rivers. 

Spain  fm'nishes  one  of  the  l)est  examples  of  [he  ])olilicnl  value  of 
mountain  boundaries.     The  Pyrenees,  wliich  cut    it  oft"  from  the  rest 


388  MAN'S  i{i;la'i-I()\  to  max 

of  Europe,  are  so  liard  to  cross  that  throufrhout  iinicli  of  its  liislon- 
Spain  has  boon  (iiiit('  separate  fi'oin  cciifral  iMiidpc  'rii(>  moun- 
tains were  one  of  the  chief  reasons  \\h\-  Spain  played  so  httle  part  in 
the  Great  War.  Ital\-,  also,  is  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  Europe  by  the 
Alps.  AceordinulN'  no  armies  except  those  of  two  of  the  world's  most 
darinii;  srenertds,  Hannil)al  and  Napoleon,  have  ever  crossed  the  main 
chain  of  the  Alps.  Only  at  either  end  where  the  Alps  descend  to  mere 
foothills  can  they  be  crossed  with  comparative  ease  and  even  there 
the  i-ailroads  need  tunnels.  Yet  in  the  past  armies  from  France  and 
esjiecially  Austria  have  sonu^times  fjone  this  way  to  Italy. 

How  Good  Political  Boundaries  may  be  Bad  Commercially.—  It  is 
imi)()rtant  to  realize  clearly  that  the  politiail  effects  jiroduced  by 
geosjraphical  conditions  may  be  good  while  the  commercial  effects  may 
be  decidedlj^  bad.  For  e.^'ample,  politically  a  country  is  fortunate  if 
its  boundaries  are  sharply  defined  by  high  mountains  and  are  not 
easily  crossed.  Commerciall}'  such  l)oundaries  are  imfortunate,  for 
they  hamper  transportation  and  trade.  India  and  China  illustrate 
the  matter.  They  are  separated  by  the  great  barrier  of  the  Hima- 
layas and  various  other  mountain  ranges.  This  has  been  an  advan- 
tage politically  because  it  has  prevented  wars.  It  has  been  a  great 
disadvantage  commercially,  however,  for  it  has  almost  prevented 
commerce.  It  has  also  prohibited  the  intcM-ciiango  of  id(>as  and  has 
thus  hamjiered  the  progj-ess  of  civilization. 

Why  Artificial  Boundaries  are  a  Disadvantage. — "Wherever  in- 
ternational boundaries  fail  to  coincide  with  natui'al  barriers,  trouble 
is  apt  to  ensue.  For  example,  the  southern  ]>oundarv  of  the  I'niled 
States  is  marked  in  part  ))y  the  Rio  Grande,  but  farther  west  it 
traverses  the  open  plateau.  Even  the  Rio  Grande  loses  its  value  as  a 
barrier  in  dry  weathei-,  foi-  then  it  can  easily  be  forded  at  many  jioints. 
The  rest  of  the  boundai>-  is  marked  only  1)\-  pillars  set  so  that  one 
can  be  seen  from  the  other.  Only  in  a  few  sections  is  it  followed 
by  a  high  barbed-wire  fence  built  in  order  to  prevent  cattl(>  from 
straying  or  being  driven  across  the  boundary  in  defiance  of  th(> 
customs  r(>gulations.  When  Mexico  is  in  commotion,  as  frequently 
happens,  there  is  nothing  aside  from  a  shallow  river  or  an  occasional 
fence  to  prevent  armed  raiders  from  crossing  into  the  United  States. 
In  19K1  a  uoloiious  raid  of  this  kind  occurred  at  ('olund)us,  New 
iSIexico.  American  ci\iliaMs  and  soldiers  were  killed  li\-  Mexican 
bandits.  Auiericaii  troops  were  sent  into  Mexico  and  stay(>d  for 
months,  and  uai-  lietween  the  two  countries  was  avcM'ted  only  with 
great  diflicultw  All  this  would  never  have  happened  if  tiu>  two 
countries  had  been  separated  by  a  boundary  which  is  also  an  effective 
barrier. 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  389 

Unfortified  Boundaries. — The  only  effective  method  of  avoid- 
ing troul)le  iilong  an  international  boundary  where  there  is  no  natural 
barrier  is  that  which  prevails  on  the  northern  border  of  the  United 
States.  From  the  Great  Lakes  westward  our  northern  boundary  runs 
across  plains,  mountains,  and  rivers  with  no  regard  to  natural  features 
of  relief.  It  is  as  easy  to  pass  from  one  country  to  the  other  as  to 
travel  within  the  lunits  of  either  comitry.  Fortunately  because  of 
the  friendship  growing  out  of  similarity  in  race,  language,  and  ideals, 
Canada  and  the  United  States  have  agreed  that  neither  will  ever  for- 
tify the  boundary'  or  make  any  preparation  for  military  activity  along 
its  coui"se,  nor  will  either  power  have  warships  upon  the  Great  Lakes. 
This  agreement  is  rigidly  carried  out,  yet  frequently  small  disturbances 
occur  because  evil  docre  cross  from  one  side  to  the  other.  During  the 
Civil  War,  for  example,  Canadian  sympathizers  with  the  Southern 
Confederacy  tried  to  organize  an  armed  expedition  to  cross  from 
Canada  into  the  Northern  States.  Half  a  centmy  later,  during  the 
early  part  of  the  Great  War,  German  sympathizei"s  from  the 
United  States  crossed  the  boundary  and  tried  to  injure  Canada  by 
blowing  up  the  Welland  Canal  and  the  international  bridge  across  the 
Saint  Croix  Ri^•er. 

Sweden  and  Norway  furnish  another  example  of  unfortified  boimd- 
aries.  They  have  agreed  that  a  strip  within  L5  kilometers  on  either 
side  of  the  international  boundary  shall  form  a  "l)uffer  zone"  wlun-e 
neither  power  will  erect  fortifications.  The  same  sort  of  agreement 
has  been  entered  into  l)etween  Siani  and  Burmah. 

How  Germany's  Frontiers  Helped  Bring  on  the  Great  War. — • 
Among  the  world's  great  nations  (Germany  has  politically  the  most 
unfortunate  l)oundaries.  An  understanding  of  them  helps  to  explain 
some  of  the  causes  of  the  Great  War.  The  really  bad  sections  of 
Germany's  boimdaries  are  on  the  east  and  west.  Thc^  eastern  bound- 
ary crosses  a  featun^less  plain,  while  the  Dutch  boundary  on  the 
west  is  of  the  same  kind.  The  pre-war  bomidary  toward  Belgium  and 
France  lay  mostly  in  a  region  of  low  hills  easily  traversed.  Coni- 
merciall}'  such  boundaries  would  be  good  were  it  not  that  they  gave 
Germany  the  mouths  of  tlu^  Nienu>n  and  A'istula  Rivers  which  nat- 
urally belong  to  Russia,,  and  cut  Germany  off  from  t.lu>  mouth  of  her 
most  important  river,  the  lihine,  where  the  chief  (ierman  sca])ort 
would  naturally  be  located. 

The  indefinite  character  of  her  eastern  and  western  boimdaries 
was  one  reason  why  Germany  encroached  on  h(>r  neigiibors.  Li  the 
eighteenth  centuiy  she  annexed  part  of  Poland,  and  in  tlu>  niiu>t(>enth 
took  Alsace-Lorraine  from  France.  France  naturally-  wanted  to 
recover  Alsace-Lorraine^,   for   in   that  region   tlie   majority   of   the 


300  MAX'S   RELATION   TO   MAN 

p(M)plp  arc  Froiich  in  rac(^  and  in  s>inpathios.  Excopt  alonp;  the 
\'()sg('s  Mountains  in  southern  Alsace  there  are  no  pliysieal  bounthu'ies 
to  separate  it  from  France  any  more  tlian  from  Germany.  There- 
fore l)oth  countries  felt  oblif^ed  to  i)rovi(le  military  defenses  alonj? 
Cli-rmany's  western  boundary.  In  the  same  way  on  the  east  Kussia 
and  Clermany  were  not  phj'sically  separated.  Before  the  Great  War 
they  had  no  afjreejnent  like  that  Ix'tween  the  United  Staters  and 
Canada.  Moreover  sueh  an  afireenieiit  is  diflicult  because,  the.  two 
countries  differ  ^"eatly  not  only  in  hiiiuuatic  and  habits,  but  in  ideals 
and  ])ur]>oses.  l-jich  has  const  ant  1\'  been  afraid  of  encroachment  by 
the  other. 

Even  in  times  of  peace  the  absence  of  any  distinct  barriers  on  the 
east  and  west  of  (lerjnany  caused  difficulties.  The  Poles  by  the 
hundred  thousand  went  from  Russian  Poland  into  eastern  Germany 
and  took  the  place  of  German  workmen  who  had  moved  west  to  the 
g:i-eat  manufacturing  districts  or  mifiTated  to  America.  Thousands 
of  Germans  went  into  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia  and  there  be- 
came a  dominant  force.  These  things  made  Germanj-  feel  that  her 
power  was  declining  in  the  south(>ast(n-n  part  of  her  own  country, 
while  at  the  same  tune  she  was  losing  her  own  citizens  elsewhere. 
On  the  west  the  Germans  felt  hampered  and  hemmed  in  because  the 
gi'eat  volume  of  fonngn  commerce  that  cajne  down  the  Rhine  had  to 
pass  through  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  who  control  the  lower  Rhine. 
In  the  same  way  the  Belgians  profited  because  much  of  Germany's 
foreign  conunerce  that  was  borne  by  rail  passed  through  their  ter- 
ritory. The  discontent  caused  by  these  conditions  was  one  reason 
\\  h>-  ( lermany  was  so  ready  to  go  to  war. 

The  Character  of  the  Present  Boundaries  of  Central  Europe. — 
From  the  purely-  physical  standpoint  the  ])rcseiit  l)oun(.larics  of  cen- 
tral Europe  are  little  better  than  the  old  ones.  Germany's  boun- 
daries have  the  same  disadvantage's  as  before.  The  Rhine  indeed  is 
geographically  far  less  of  a  bari'icr  than  the  \'osges  iMountains.  On 
the  east  the  boundary  c\-cry\\  Ik  ic  liaverses  a  level  ])lain  and  can 
easily  be  crossed  at  any  point.  The  only  advantage  is  that  tlu>  new 
boundaries  satisfy  the  racial  aspii"ations  of  more  ]k'oi)1(>  than  did  the 
(tld,  wiiili'  the  League  of  Nations  intends  to  pievciit  the  building  of 
fori ificat ions  along  any  frontier. 

Poland's  boundiu'ies  are  politically  even  woi'sc  than  (leiinany's, 
since  that  country  is  carved  out  of  an  oi)cn  plain.  In  fact  the 
lack  of  any  barriers  between  Poland  and  her  neighbors  was  one  of 
the  main  reasons  why  t.he  old  Poland  of  a  century  ago  was  divided 
bclwccn  <  iciiiiany,  .\n-tria,  ;fnd  Russia,  in  llic  I'ulurc  the  lack  of 
bariici-  boundaries  ma\-  foster  Poland's  t  i-ade,  but  will  cause  the  Poles 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY  391 

in  different  sections  to  want  to  enter  into  intimate  relations  with  their 
respective  neighbors  and  may  cause  strong  poUtical  differences. 

Czecho-SIovakia,  Jugo-Slavia,  Hungary,  Austria,  and  the  other 
little  states  of  that  ])art  of  Europe  suffer  more  or  less  in  the  same  way 
from  lack  of  definite  physical  barriers  in  the  places  where  racial  dis- 
tribution causes  the  location  of  boimdaries.  Because  of  this  fact 
gi'eat  tact  and  wisdom  are  iK^ecknl  on  the  part  of  the  League  of  Nations 
to  prevent  further  troubles  hke  those  of  Poland,  Austria,  and  the 
Balkans  in  the  past. 

QUESTIONS,  EXERCISES,  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States,  color  all  the  boundaries  both  state 
and  national,  according  to  the  following  scheme:  (a)  boundaries  determined  bj' 
mountains — red;  (6)  by  water — blue;  (r)  by  deserts — yellow;  (d)  by  arbitrary  lines 
of  latitude  and  longitude  or  other  straight  lines — ^green.  Discuss  your  map  to 
show  what  i)arts  of  the  countrj-  are  characterized  by  each  kind  of  boimdaries,  and 
why. 

2.  Make  a  boundary  map  of  Europe  like  the  "one  for  the  United  States  de- 
scribed in  Exercise  1,  and  discuss  it  in  the  same  wa3^  Write  out  a  statement  of 
the  chief  points  of  contrast  between  the  maps  of  the  United  States  and  Europe, 
and  their  reasons. 

3.  Prepare  a  map  showing  the  present  boundaries  of  European  countries  com- 
pared with  those  previous  to  the  Great  War.  Discuss  the  geographical  conditions 
which  determined  the  location  of  each  new  boundary.  Show  the  effect  of  (a) 
mountains;  (6)  distribution  of  races;  (c)  routes  of  transportation;  (il)  arliitraiy 
exercise  of  power. 

4.  Look  up  the  climatic  graph  for  Vladivostok  (Fig.  84)  and  point  out  what 
features  of  it  have  had  an  effect  on  international  relations  and  how. 

5.  On  an  outline  map  of  European  Russia  and  Siberia,  color  the  coasts  which 
are  icebound  in  winter.  Insert  the  Trans-Siberian  and  Trans-Caucasian  raiiwaj's 
with  their  main  branches  and  connections  to  foreign  countries.  Draw  lines  along 
the  four  most  feasible  routes  by  which  Russia  and  Siberia  might  find  outlets  to  the 
ocean  on  the  .south.  Describe  each  route  from  tiie  following  ])()ints  of  view:  (a) 
topography;  (?;)  climate;  (c)  location  in  respect  to  well  settled  parts  of  the 
Russian  Empire;  (d)  difficulty  of  building  and  operating  lines  of  communication; 
(c)  international  relations. 

6.  It  has  been  said  that  the  great  area  covered  by  the  United  States  presents 
real  community  of  interest.  Prepare  both  pros  and  cons  for  a  debate  on  this 
question. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

How  the  Strong  Nations  Have  Expanded. — One  of  tho  cliicf 
])()litical  (iiu'slioiis  of  tlio  twciitirth  cciitury  is  the  iclalion  of  stroiii!; 
nations  to  those  that  are  weak  or  l^ackwanl.  Cieojq'aphical  con- 
ditions, as  we  have  ah'cady  seen,  strengthen  some  nations  and 
weaken  othei"s.  Hence  such  conditions  have  a  profound  influence  on 
international  relations  and  so  on  the  ideals  which  are  one  of  the  great- 
est factoi-s  in  advancing  or  retarding  ci^dlization.  Histoiy  shows  that 
strong  nations  in  invigorating  clunatcs  ahnost  inevitably  expand  and 
dominate  the  weak  ones  in  less  favorable  clmiates.  In  the  past  they 
did  this  without  restraint,  but  now  their  expansion  is  more  or  less 
controlled  by  the  concerted  action  of  other  nations. 

The  direction  in  which  strong  nations  expand  depends  on  geograph- 
ical conditions.  As  a  rule  a  strong  nation  gi'adually  expands  into 
adjacent  temtory  that  is  either  spai-sely  populated  or  ])oorly  governed. 
At  first  the  expansion  is  more  or  less  accidental,  or  at  least  is  merely 
the  work  of  individuals,  but  later  it  is  guided  by  definite  purposes, 
which  become  part  of  the  national  ideal.  Let  us  trace  the  expansion 
of  each  of  the  gi'cat  powers,  so  that  wc  may  undc^rstand  both  Jioir  it 
has  taken  ])iaco  and  ?/7///. 

(1)  Great  Britain.  How  Britain  Expanded  Across  the  Sea. — 
The  earliest  attempt  of  Britain  to  expand  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
British  Isles  was  directed  toward  France,  but  as  that  country,  accord- 
ing to  the  standards  of  those  early  days,  was  neither  sjiarsely  po]iu- 
latcd  nor  poorly  governed,  England  was  baffled.  Then  Britain  turned 
her  attention  across  the  sea.  Si)ain,  Portugal,  and  France,  however, 
the  other  three  main  countries  on  the  side  of  Europe  toward  the  Atlan- 
tic, were  also  looking  for  opportunities  across  the  water.  S]miii  and 
Portugal,  in  accordance  with  their  geographical  position,  founil  their 
sphere  of  activity  in  low  latitudes  where  the  niild  climate  prevented 
their  colonies  from  growing  great.  I'Jigland  and  I'rance  colonized 
farther  north,  where  the  climate  is  stijnulatiiig.  The  fact  that 
England  is  an  island,  and  looks  seaward,  while  l''rance  is  part  of  the 
continent  and  is  more  interested  in  the  land  than  in  the  sea,  helped 
the  English  to  wrest  from  the  French  their  possessions  across  the 
geas.     Thus  by  far  the  best  part  of  America  became  EngUsh, 

393 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  393 

During  the  early  days  the  EngUsh  had  no  idea  that  some  day 
their  colonics  would  expand  into  the  great  Dominion  of  Canada  and 
the  still  greater  United  States  of  America.  The  fact  that  the  colo- 
nists Uved  in  a  highly  stimulating  climate,  however,  mad(^  such  ex- 
pansion inevitable.  That  same  fact  also  had  much  to  do  with  the 
separation  of  the  United  States  from  England,  for  energetic  p(H)plc 
will  not  tolerate  abuses  which  more  apathetic  pcoi)le  put  up  with  for 
centuries. 

In  India  the  effect  of  geographical  conditions  upon  England's 
colonial  history  was  very  different  from  the  effect  in  the  United 
States.  Soon  after  the  discovery  of  America  British  merchants  went 
to  India  to  engage  in  trade  and  with  no  pur))ose  of  foimding  a  vast 
Indian  Empire.  They  found  a  densely  populated  countiy  whose  in- 
habitants lacked  energy  because  of  the  tropical  clmiate,  and  who  were 
correspondingly  l)ackward  in  civilization.  Accordingly,  for  their 
own  convenience  and  safety,  the  British  merchants  assmned  control  of 
a  small  area  near  Calcutta  and  governed  it.  At  first  they  nierely 
took  space  enough  for  forts  within  which  to  shelter  their  warehouses 
and  offices.  Then,  for  greater  peace  of  mind,  they  spread  their  ])()wcr 
over  the  towns  where  the  forts  were  located  and  in  tune  over  surround- 
ing districts.  But  neighboring  Indian  states  troubled  them.  Some- 
times the  trouble  was  due  to  the  aggression  of  the  forceful  English 
traders;  sometmies  to  the  dishonesty  and  tn^achery  of  the  natives. 
In  cither  case  the  strong  people  from  an  invigorating  clunate  con- 
quered the  weak  tropical  people.  Thus  British  rule  was  spread 
abroad.  The  process  has  continued  until  England  governs  over  300,- 
000,000  people  in  southern  Asia. 

During  the  Great  War  the  location  of  Mesopotamia  and  Palestine 
gave  England  a  special  interest  in  those  regions.  Cermany  had  l^ccn 
encroaching  on  ]Mcso})otamia,  and  thus  bade  fair  not  only  to  dom- 
inate the  land  route  from  the  Mediterranean  to  India,  but  to  threat  en 
the  sea  route.  Turkey,  on  the  other  hand,  began  to  threatcMi  tlic 
Suez  Canal  from  Palestine.  Hence  lilngland  concpuMx^l  not  only 
Mesopotamia,  using  India  as  her  base  for  supplies  and  tiooiis,  1ml 
Palestine  with  Egj^pt  as  a  base.  AVhen  peace  was  declared  l-jigland 
was  left  in  control  of  these  regions  and  in  a  position  to  carry  out 
her  long-cherished  plan  of  a  land  route  of  licr  own  from  Egypt  and  the 
Mediterranean  to  India.  Outside  her  actual  i)ossessions  the  intlu- 
ence  of  England  is  paramount  in  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet, 
because  her  position  in  India  makes  her  the  nearest  strong  i)ower  to 
each  of  them. 

In  the  Southern  ne]nis])liere  l')ritish  ex])ansion  followed  nnicli  the 
same  course  as  in  the  Northern.     Australia,  with  its  sparse  native 


394  MANS   RELATION   TO   MAN 

])(i])ul;i(i<in  and  its  j^ood  clijiialc  in  tho  soutlicast,  ropoatod  the 
history  of  Nortli  Ajiicrica  on  a  small  scale,  us  ilid  New  Zealand. 
There  \v:us  never  ar.y  revolution,  however,  because  England  learned 
the  lesson  of  good  colonial  government  from  her  war  with  the  ^\jner- 
ican  colonies.  In  South  Africa  the  course  of  events  was  midway 
lu'tween  that  in  Australia  and  India.  The  British  settlers  encoun- 
tered a  denser  native  population  and  a  less  stinnilating  climalc  than 
in  Australia.  They  dominated  the  natives  as  in  India,  but  they 
themseb-es  have  gradually  ])een  weakened  so  that  progress  is  not  so 
rapid  as  in  a  place  like  New  Zealand.  In  tropical  Africa  the  concjuest 
of  the  British  Colonies  took  place  much  as  in  the  later  stages  of  India's 
history,  but  the  results  have  been  relatively  meager.  lOlsewhere  the 
British  colonies  are  relatively  small  or  unimportant.  In  I-^gypt 
England  acquired  a  colony  because  Egypt  happens  to  lie  on  the  highly 
imjiortant  route  which  connects  the  homeland  w'ith  India.  But 
in  1922  iMigland  gave  up  her  direct  control  over  Egypt  except  for  a 
canal  zone  where  her  i)osition  i'^  much  like  that  of  tiie  United  States 
in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone. 

Why  the  British  Empire  Has  Grown  so  Great. — (a)  Britain's 
Central  Location. — The  leasons  why  the  British  Empire  to-day 
embraces  nearl}^  a  quarter  of  the  earth's  surface  may  well  be  classified 
according  to  the  table  in  Chapter  I,  showing  llic  elements  of  geog- 
raph}'.  The  location  of  Britain  off  the  northwest  coast  of  Europe 
brings  it  nearer  to  the  middle^  latitudes  of  America  than  is  any  other 
country  of  Europe.  This  is  important  because  Britain  was  thus  led 
to  occupy  the  best  part  of  Ameiica.  That  helps  to  explain  wliy  hjiglish 
is  the  most  widely  used  language.  The  location  of  Britain  in  icsjKH't 
to  India  was  also  influential  in  causing  the  Suez  Canal  to  be  dug,  and 
was  the  reason  why  l^igland  took  charge  of  Egypt  and  still  controls 
its  foreign  policy.  After  C.i'eat  Britain  became  imbued  with  the  pur- 
pose to  build  u| )  a  great  empire  she  set  herself  to  control  the  best  lines  of 
approach  to  each  of  her  possessions.  This  involved  picking  up  islands 
like  the  Bennudas,and  Falklands,and  ports  like  Hongkong  all  over  the 
world.  To-day  along  her  most  important  route  leading  to  India  h'ng- 
land  has  secured  a  whole  string  of  w'ay -stations,  including  (Jibraltar, 
Malta,  Cyprus,  Suez,  Perim,  Aden,  Socotia,  and  the  Kuria  ]\Iuria  Isl- 
ands. Thus  I^rilain  is  the  nu'cting  jilace  of  the  most  rcniaikalilc  net- 
work of  lines  of  conimunicaton  that  the  world  ever  knew.  Slir  lias  im- 
proved her  own  location  even  though  it  was  already  highly  la\()rable. 

{h)  The  Advantacje  of  the  Emqyire's  Island  Home. — England  is 
fortunate  that  her  land  takes  the  form  of  an  island,  and  jiai'ticularly  of 
an  island  willi  a  submerged  coast.  Had  her  territory  liccn  joined  to 
that    of   the    mainland   she   might     perhaps   have   I'cmained   united 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  395 

with  France  as  a  single  nation.  Certain!}^  her  interests  would  have 
been  directed  toward  the  continent  as  have  those  of  France  because 
of  the  need  of  protecting  herself  from  other  countries  and  of  main- 
taining constant  intercourse  with  them.  Had  her  coast  not  been  sub- 
merged she  would  have  lacked  the  hundreds  of  harbors,  great  and 
small,  that  keep  her  in  touch  with  the  sea.  Moreover,  when  she 
came  in  conflict  with  othei  nations  which  were  also  expanding  l)y  sea 
she  had  an  advantage  because  her  long  coast  gave  her  far  more  sailors 
and  ships  than  had  the  others,  and  also  led  her  people  to  l)e  interested 
in  conunerce  and  remote  overseas  venturers  in  a  way  that  is  not  pos- 
sible for  an  inland  country. 

(c)  How  the  Ocean  Brought  Worldwide  Expansion. — Being  sin'- 
rounded  l)y  water  Britain  had  to  expand  by  sea  or  not  at  all.  Smce 
she  expanded  across  the  water  she  was  able  to  choose  whatever  places 
she  preferred  with  much  less  hindrance  than  if  she  had  tried  to  push 
this  way  and  that  by  land.  As  the  most  active  of  the  gi-eat  nations 
on  the  sea,  she  was  able  to  take  possession  of  ahnost  all  the  best 
regions  in  America,  Africa,  Asia,  and  Australia.  Even  when  other 
nations  had  preceded  her,  she  often  drove  them  out  as  happened  to 
Holland  in  New  York,  to  France  in  Canada,  and  to  Portugal  in  Cey- 
lon. 

(r/)  How  Coal  and  Iron  Aided  the  Empire'' s  Growth. — The  minerals 
of  Britain  have  been  of  the  first  importance.  An  abundance  of  cheap 
coal  close  to  the  water  enabled  Britain  to  substitute  steamships  for 
sailing  vessels  sooner  than  did  any  other  nation.  Then  it  enabled 
her  to  run  her  ships  cheaply  and  gave  her  cargoes  to  take  abroad  in 
exchange  for  bulky  food  stuffs  and  raw  materials.  Thus  coal  cUucIkhI 
Britain's  control  of  the  sea.  So  having  picked  up  an  island  here,  a 
seaport  there,  and  a  whole  province  somewhere  else,  she  was  able  to 
hold  them  easily.  Her  iron  ore  helped  equally,  for  with  the  coal  it 
enabled  her  to  become  a  manufacturing  nation  sooner  than  did  any 
other  country.  Her  manufactures  suppHed  her  sliips  with  the  most 
profitable  kmd  of  goods  for  export,  and  thus  are  one  of  the  main 
causes  of  the  growth  of  the  em])ire.  Petroleimi  is  the  onlj^  important 
mineral  product  which  neither  Britain  nor  her  colonies  supply.  For 
that  reason  after  the  Great  War  some  influential  Englishmen  wanted 
to  retain  Persia  and  ]iart  of  Transcaucasia  in  order  to  control  the 
Baku  oil  fields.  Others,  howe^•er,  felt  that  such  a  course  was  con- 
trary to  the  spirit  embodied  in   the   League  of  Nations. 

(e)  How  British  Eucrgij  Turns  the  Scales. — P^ngland,  as  we  have 
seen,  probably  has  the  best  chmate  in  the  world.  It  keeps  peojilc  out 
doors,  and  makes  them  tough  and  sturdy;  it  stinuilates  the  miml, 
and  jnakes  it  easy  to  think  ck'arly  and  act  energetically.     Thus  when 


396  MAN'S   RELATION   TO   MAN 

thp  British  arc  pitted  against  othrr  nations  their  extra  energy  has 
again  and  again  tiu'ned  tlie  scales  and  enabled  them  to  hold  parts  of 
tiie  world  against  their  rivals.  ( )ne  of  the  niain  reasons  for  the 
strength  of  the  Hritish  Ijnjnre  is  that  several  of  the  chief  colonies 
have  climati's  which  resemble  that  of  England  in  their  sthnulating 
qualities.  Southern  Canada,  New  Zealand,  and  southeastern  Aus- 
tralia, rank  highest.  No  other  countiy  has  colonies  which  at  all 
ap]")roach  these  in  this  respect.  ThcMr  ^'alue  is  evident  from  the 
sturily  helji  that  they  gave  hi  the  Great  ^^'ar. 

(/)  How  the  Need  of  Food  and  Haw  Materials  Forced  Expaimoti. — 
From  the  point  of  view  of  a  colonial  ein]iire  it  is  well  that  certain 
useful  jilants  and  animals  cannot  grow  in  the  lirilish  Isles,  for  it  was 
the  search  for  valuable  products  like  tea,  spices,  and  silk,  which  led 
to  Britain's  first  expansion  to  India  and  America.  In  later  times, 
when  manufacturing  became  huportant,  the  fact  that  Britain  can- 
not produce  either  food  or  raw  inatcnials  in  sufficient  quantit}'  and 
variety  unpelled  the  British  still  further  to  ex])and  their  emjiire. 
The  jute  and  hides  of  India  are  far  more  valuable  than  all  her  spices, 
silk,  tea,  and  precious  metals.  So,  too,  the  wool  and  meat  of  Aus- 
tralia, the  wheat,  wood,  bacon,  cheese,  and  paper  of  Canada;  the 
cotton  of  Eg^'pt ;  the  rubber  of  Ceylon ;  and  the  wool  of  South  Africa, 
are  the  kind  of  i)ro(hi('ts  t  hat  make  her  colonies  worth  Avhile  to  Britain. 

(2)  The  Expansion  of  Russia. — Just  as  England  furnishes  the 
gi'eatest  exam])le  of  expansion  by  sea,  so  Russia  furnishes  the  best 
example  of  ex])ansi()n  In"  land.  Compared  with  the  13, ()()(), 000  square 
miles  and  440,000,000  peoi)le  of  the  British  Empire,  Kussia,  before 
the  Great  War,  had  8,600,000  square  miles  and  180,000,000  people. 
Yet  the  Russian  Empire  had  little  of  the  strength  antl  vigor  of  the 
British,  for  Russia  and  Siberia  are  subject  to  many  geographical  tlis- 
advantages. 

(a)  In  location  the  Russian  Empire  had  the  disadvantage  of  be- 
ing in  the  worst  part  of  I^urope  and  in  the  least  accessible  part  of  Asia. 
Thus  it  came  in  little  contact  with  the  w^orld's  most  progi'essive  coun- 
tries. It  had  the  advantage,  however,  of  b(>ing  a  single  conqxact  mass 
instead  of  a  vast  number  of  isolated  and  vulnerable  parts  such  as  com- 
pose the  British  Enq:)ire. 

(6)  The /or//?  o/ ^/ic /a/) r/ in  Bussia  courted  expansion,  for  in  the 
great  portion  between  the  dense  northern  forests  and  the  southern 
deserts  t.he  \iist  plain  is  easily  traversed.  From  Moscow,  where 
the  ciiijjire  began,  the  plain  stretches  awaj' in  every  direction.  To 
tlu;  jKjrtii  it  finally  reaches  a  boundary  only  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 
to  the  south  in  the  Black  Sea  and  tlu^  Caucasus  Mountains.  West- 
ward  the   Fkiissi;tn  Enq)ire  never  reached  any  iialural  boundary,  for 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  397 

before  the  form  of  the  land  changes  appreciably,  new  races  are  found 
and  new  conditions  of  climate  and  vegetation.  In  this  lay  much  of 
Russia's  weakness,  for  when  the  Empire  began  to  cnunblc  these 
border  regions  at  once  broke  into  minor  principahties  hke  Finland, 
Poland,  and  Ukraine.  Eastward  the  plain  is  only  slightly  inter- 
rupted by  the  low  Ural  IVIountains  and  extends  thousands  of  miles 
to  the  plateaus  of  northern  Siberia.  Its  vast  extent  was  one  chief 
reason  why  the  Russian  Empire  became  so  huge. 

(c)  As  we  saw  in  the  last  chapter  Russia  has  always  been  handi- 
capped bj'  her  unfortunate  relation  to  the  oceans.  So  far  as  inland 
bodies  of  water  are  concerned,  however,  her  expansion  has  been  helped. 
Because  Sil^eria  is  a  plain  the  pioneei*s  in  that  country  were  able  to 
float  down  one  river  and  pole  their  boats  up  another  time  and  again. 
Such  water  transportation  aided  greatly  in  allowing  the  Russians 
to  spread  easily  over  northern  Asia. 

(r/)  One  of  the  important  points  where  Russian  expansion  dif- 
fered froni  that  of  Britain  was  the  use  of  minerals.  In  Britain  coal 
and  iron  are  found  near  the  most  densely  populated  parts  of  the 
country.  In  Russia,  the  deposits  are  not  only  far  less  abundant 
than  in  England,  but  he  largely  on  the  outer  edges.  For  these  rea- 
sons and  also  because  Russia  is  in  many  respects  less  advanced  than 
the  other  great  powers,  her  coal  and  iron  have  done  little  to  help  in 
the  development  of  manufactures.  They  neither  caused  the  empire  to 
expand,  nor  prevented  it  from  faUing  apart  under  the  shock  of  war 
and  revolution. 

{e)  Although  western  and  central  Russia  have  a  highly  stimu- 
lating clivmic,  it  deteriorates  along  every  possible  line  of  cx])ansion. 
This  made  it  easy  to  conquer  the  people  of  outlying  regions,  but  it 
denied  to  Russia  the  chance  to  develop  strong  colonies  like  Canada 
and  Xew  Zealand,  which  in  some  respects  excel  the  mother  coimtry. 
On  the  contrary  the  farther  Russia  expanded  toward  the  south, 
east,  and  north,  the  less  became  the  energy'  and  power  of  th(^  po()])le, 
and  the  weaker  their  union  with  the  central  government. 

(/)  Another  disadvantage  appeal's  in  the  plants  and  animals. 
England's  expansion  enabled  her  to  draw  on  all  sorts  of  new  food 
stuffs  and  raw  materials.  That  of  Russia  in  early  days,  to  be  sure, 
brought  her  the  rich  wheat  fields  of  the  south  and  of  western  Siberia, 
but  in  later  times  she  acquired  nothing  new — merely  more  of  the  old 
kinds,  but  of  jjoorer  quality.  Hence  there  was  no  gi'cat  stinuilus  to 
trade,  and  little  incentive  to  ijtnprove  the  difficult  means  of  cojiuniiiii- 
cation  between  the  outlying  n^ginns  and  the  center. 

Russia's  Great  Handicap,  Monotony. — To  sum  up  tlu>  wh()l(> 
matter,  although  some  great  minds  like  IVter  the  (ireat  made  i)lans 


30S  MAN'S   RKr.A'riOX   TO    MAN 

to  attain  tlofmito  ends  such  as  an  outlet  on  ice-free  seas?,  most  of 
Russia's  growtli  was  lar}z;('ly  accidental.  The  ninrr  riior<rctic  people 
of  the  western  and  central  jjarts  j)ushetl  out  over  the  ])lains  jnucli  as 
the  British  pushed  out  across  the  water.  Quarrels  with  the  natives 
ensued.  The  government  stepped  in  to  protect  its  citizens,  and  the 
result  was  an  enlarj^ement  of  the  Russian  Empire.  Yet  the  cold 
climate  and  the  consequent  spai-sity  both  of  people  and  of  materials 
for  commerce  prevented  the  Russian  I'hiipire  from  being  tied  into  a 
great  net  as  is  tlie  British  Emjiire,  and  so  it  fell  to  pieces.  The. 
pieces  may  ultmiately  form  parts  of  a  new  and  happier  Russian  Em- 
pire, for  the  unity  of  the  language  and  the  unity  of  the  vast  plain 
strongly  tentl  to  hold  the  country  togc^tlun-.  But  such  an  empire  can 
scarcely  hojie  to  rival  those  of  the  United  States  and  Britain  whose 
territories  are  blessed  with  a  variety  which  is  a  potent  source  of 
stnMigth.  Comi)ared  with  such  a  country  as  the  United  States 
Russia  is  handicapped  by  intense  monotony.  The  plain  shows  it; 
the  climate  shows  it;  the  plants  and  annuals  show  it;  and  so  do  the 
peojile. 

(3)  The  Expansion  of  the  United  States. — Because  our  own  coun- 
try'' is  a  region  of  high  energy  and  is  inhabited  by  a  strong  race  the 
process  of  expansion  has  gone  on  rajndly.  A\'e  bought  Louisiana  and 
Alaska  because  they  are  located  nearer  to  us  than  to  any  other  strong 
]i()\vor.  Hence  they  were  worth  more  to  us  than  to  France  or  Russia, 
tlicir  jirevious  owners.  Two  other  geographical  conditions  also 
entered  into  the  matter,  namely  the  fact  that  Louisiana  guards  the 
month  of  our  greatest  waterwaj-,  while  Alaska  is  rich  in  fish  and  fur. 
In  the  cases  of  Texas,  New  IMexico,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  California 
location  was  also  a  prmiary  factor  in  causing  the  expansion  of  llie 
United  States.  In  Texas,  however,  the  form  of  the  land  and  the 
nature  of  the  dunate  were  unportant.  The  great  j^lain,  continu- 
ous w'ith  that  of  Louisiana,  invited  settlers,  while  the  fitness  of  llu^ 
climate  and  vegetation  for  the  raising  of  cattle  were  strong  incentives. 
The  other  States  fell  into  our  hands  largely  ])e(ausc  so  much  of  them 
was  desert  and  the  ])aits  tluii  were  not  desert  were  so  far  from  IMt^xico 
tliat  few  Mexicans  li\-e(l  l,hei-e  and  misgovernment  was  ranqiant. 
Hence  in  s]iite  (»f  niuch  talk,  ther(^  was  little  organized  o])])ositi(m 
in  Mexico  wiien  they  were  ceded  to  this  country.  Although 
I  he  whole  transaction  was  to  the  advantage  of  Texas  and  the 
United  States,  it  was  not  strictly  just.  It  illustrates  the  way 
in  which  the  demands  of  the  eiuYgetic  people  of  cycloni<'  regions 
are  forced  u])on  the  weak  ])eo])le  of  the  tropics  and  the  Orient. 
It  nnist  also  be  remend)ered  that  by  reason  of  its  own  natural 
growth    and    the    addition    of    settlers    frojn     l]in-o]K'.,    the    United 


INTERXATIOXAL   RELATIONS  399 

States  was  rapidly  expanding,  while  Mexico  was  changing  but  Uttle. 
Mexico  hei-self,  together  with  the  unfavorable  clmiate,  prevented 
us  from  expanding  southward,  whik^  England  was  firmly  estab- 
lished in  Canada.  Hence  the  natural  direction  of  expansion  was  west- 
ward. This  explains  wh}-  the  settles  of  the  United  States  pressed 
into  Washington  and  Oregon  ahead  of  the  British,  who  claimed  those 
regions  because  of  their  fur-trading  posts.  Our  other  acquisitions 
also  illustrate  the  effect  of  clunatic  contrasts  and  of  location.  At 
first  our  expansion,  like  that  of  Russia,  was  entirely  b}'  land,  but  later 
we  followed  England's  example  and  went  across  the  water.  Firet 
we  took  the  Hawaiian  Islands  because  they  are  nearer  to  us  than  to 
any  other  country.  IMoreover,  although  not  on  the  main  route  be- 
tween this  country  and  Japan  and  China,  they  are  a  port  of  call  for 
many  steamers.  For  these  reasons  and  also  because  of  their  wealth 
in  cattle,  sugar,  and  other  tropical  products  Americans  already  formed 
a  solid  nucleus  for  seK-government  and  we  felt  obhged  to  support 
their  aspirations  to  become  part  of  our  union.  In  Samoa,  also,  we 
took  action,  first  because  we  wanted  a  naval  station  in  the  South 
Pacific,  and  then  to  prevent  misgovcrnment. 

After  the  war  with  Spain  in  1898  we  placed  a  protectorate  over 
Cuba.  Because  it  hes  at  our  very  door  we  were  interested  ui  its 
sugar  crop,  and  wanted  to  right  its  wrongs.  Our  acquisition  of  the 
island  possessions  of  the  Phihppines  and  Porto  Rico,  however,  had 
little  geogi'aphic  cause  except  m  so  far  as  Spain's  weakness  and  cor- 
ruption were  of  geogi'aphical  origin.  As  for  Guam,  we  were  glad  to 
get  it  because  of  its  location  where  a  coaling  station  was  needed  if  we 
were  to  maintain  much  intercoiu'se  with  the  Philippines.  Since  then 
we  have  annexed  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  and  have  established  a  mild 
protectorate  over  the  RcpubHcs  of  Panama,  Nicaragua,  Haiti,  and 
Santo  Domingo.  We  have  not  done  this  from  any  desire  for  expan- 
sion, but  simply  because  our  location  near  these  countries  has  obliged 
us  to  use  our  strength  in  forwarding  the  gi'eat  international  enter- 
prise of  the  canal  and  in  protecting  oiu*  own  people  or  others  from  the 
misgovernment  of  weaker  countiies.  The  Virgin  Islands  fall  in  a 
group  by  themselves.  We  bought  them  from  Denmark  because  the 
United  States  is  coming  to  feel  that  it  shoukl  not  rim  the  risk  of  letting 
islands  guarding  the  approaches  to  Panama  fall  into  unfriendly 
hands. 

(4)  The  Expansion  of  France. — France  is  another  of  the  countries 
located  in  a  region  of  highly  stimulating  climate.  She,  too,  has  ex- 
panded into  regions  occu]')ied  by  weaker  people,  but  not  in  the  same 
way  as  Britain,  l^ussia.  and  the  United  States.  She  has  not  had  much 
surplus  p()i)ulati()n   with   which   to  estal)lish  colonies  like  tlinse  of 


MM)  MAX'S   RELATION'   TO    MAX 

Britain.  Her  frontioi-s,  unlike  tliosc  of  Russia,  have  boon  boitlcrod  by 
stronp  countries  so  tliat  she  eoukl  not  expand  into  ncifihborin}?  terri- 
tory. Soon  after  tlie  (Useovery  of  .Vinerica  siic  jiiadc  her  first  colonial 
attempt  in  the  same  way  as  (li'cat  Bi'itain.  Alaiiy  of  her  people 
settled  in  ( "anada,  and  Louisiana,  and  India.  These  places  she  lost, 
chielly  to  England,  because  of  the  lOnplish  energy'  and  sea  power  and 
l>ecause  being  a  self-supporting  agiicultural  country  with  no  excess 
population  she  did  not  reall}''  need  colonies.  All  that  she  holds 
to-da>'  in  these  regions  is  a  few  tinj^  l)its  like  the  islands  of  St.  Pierre 
and  Miquelon  off  Newfoundland  and  the  port  of  Pondicheny  in 
India.  In  thus  losing  her  early  American  and  Indian  colonies 
France  suffered  the  same  fate  as  Holland  and  Portugal. 

During  the  nineteenth  centuiy,  when  the  need  of  raw  materials 
and  of  markets  started  all  the  gi*eat  countries  of  Europe  on  a  new  hunt 
for  colonies  France  again  niade  an  attempt.  This  time  she  did  not 
expand  from  her  Atlantic  coast  where  she  had  failed  before  and  where 
she  would  have  had  to  compete  with  England.  Instead  she  went  out 
from  her  Mediterranean  coast  to  Tunis  and  Algeria,  the  nearest  land 
that  was  not  held  by  a  strong  nation  and  hence  was  weaklj'  governed. 
Then  she  expanded  into  the  Sahara  and  eventually  took  the  bulk  of 
west  Africa.  To-day  her  possessions  in  the  continent  of  Africa  are 
twenty  times  the  size  of  France,  while  even  the  island  of  jNIada- 
gascar,  off  the  southeast  coast,  is  larger  than  all  of  the  home  coun- 
try. Finally  the  French  turned  again  toward  Asia,  and  there,  unlike 
Great  Britain,  they  entered  upon  a  deliberate  plan  of  conquest  in 
Indo-China.  To-day  the  French  possessions  are  larger  than  the 
United  States  and  have  half  as  great  a  population.  England  alone  has 
a  larger  colonial  empire.  Strangely  enough  all  this  territory  is 
commercially  tributary  to  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  France,  and 
aUhougii  Paris  is  the  capital,  Marseilles  is  the  great  colonial  port. 

(5)  The  Expansion  of  Japan. — Among  the  nations  of  Asia  Japan 
is  the  only  one  which  is  strong  because  of  its  location  in  a  region  of 
cyclonic  storms.  The  example  of  other  strong  nations  convinced  her 
of  the  vahic  of  colonies.  The  ^I'ow  tli  of  licr  own  population  made  her 
feel  the  need  of  them.  The  weak  and  poorly  governed  regions  of 
Fonnosa  an<l  Koica  only  a  little  distance  from  her  coasts  gave  her  the 
desired  op])ort unity  for  expansion.  They  were  not  enough  to  satisfy 
her,  however,  and  :us  Manchuria  is  the  nearest  easily  accessible  region 
she  exi)anded  ra))idly  there. 

.lajian's  ex])ansion  is  the  result  of  a  real  need.  Not  more  than 
one-filth  of  iier  tenitory  can  be  cultivated  because  it  is  so  moun- 
tainous. Thai  lil'tli.  comprising  only  21,000  square  miles,  supports 
5.^,000,000  peo|)le,  or  2'A)i)  to  the  s(iuaf(>  mile.      .\s   the  jjopnladon 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  401 

increases  and  the  standard  of  living  rises,  the  Japanese  must  ha\e 
new  means  of  support.  They  have  thought  they  could  obtain  these 
by  acquiring  new  lands,  and  hence  have  adopted  a  policy  of  attempt- 
ing to  control  China.  At  the  end  of  the  Great  War,  they  tried  to 
cling  to  Shantung,  which  they  had  wrested  from  the  Germans,  and 
at  the  same  time  acquired  new  concessions  farther  south  in  Fukien. 

How  Japan  Can  Best  Solve  Her  Chinese  Problem. — The  expe- 
rience of  I'rance  and  of  most  countries  that  have  colonies  shows,  how- 
ever, that  the  real  solution  does  not  lie  in  political  control.  It  lies 
in  cultivating  friendly  relations  so  that  a  profitable  trade  may  develop 
between  countries  like  Japan  and  China.  In  Japan  the  geographical 
conditions  cause  manufacturing  and  commerce  to  be  of  ever-increas- 
ing importance.  In  China  the  lower  degi'ee  of  initiative  among  the 
people  and  the  presence  of  great  natural  resources  cause  that  countiy 
to  offer  its  chief  possibilities  as  a  source  of  food  and  raw  materials. 
Political  domination  of  weaker  nations  by  those  that  are  stronger  is 
needed  only  to  prevent  misgovermnent.  It  is  needed  in  China  far 
less  than  in  India. 

Warm  friendship  promotes  trade  far  more  than  political  domi- 
nation, as  we  have  found  through  our  treatment  of  Cuba.  Yet  the 
greatest  of  all  incentives  to  trade  is  geographical  location.  Countries 
that  are  near  together  are  sure  to  carry  on  a  hvely  trade,  especiall}-  if 
one  supplies  food  and  raw  materials  and  the  other  supplies  manufac- 
tured goods.  France  and  Germany  prove  the  pov/er  of  geogi-aphical 
position,  for  even  though  thej-  are  mutually  hostile  and  differ  only  a 
Httle  in  their  products,  French  trade  with  Germany  before  the  war 
amounted  to  as  much  as  the  trade  of  France  with  all  her  colonies. 
In  the  same  way,  in  proportion  to  the  population  Canada  does  sev- 
eral times  as  much  business  with  the  United  States  as  with  Great 
Britain.  Thus  it  appears  that  if  Japan  remains  on  friendly  terms 
with  China  without  political  control  she  can  some  daj^  be  the  chief 
factor  in  the  trade  of  that  country,  and  at  the  same  time  maintain 
the  world's  respect.  In  some  ways  the  relations  of  those  two  coun- 
tries are  similar  to  our  relations  with  Mexico,  although  China  is  better 
governed  and  more  adA'anced  than  Mexico. 

(6)  The  Expansion  of  Germany. — The  relation  of  German}^  to  its 
weaker  neighl)oi"s  is  different  from  that  of  anj^  other  countr}'.  She 
was  so  busy  with  attempts  at  unifying  her  own  states  that  she  was  not 
ready  to  look  abroad  until  after  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire 
in  1871.  After  that  she  gradually  formed  the  purpose  of  building  up 
an  empire  outside  Germany.  Just  as  England's  purjiose  was  tlie 
formation  of  a  great  empire  of  self-governing  dominions,  and  as 
that  of  the  United  States  was  the  spread  of  self-government  and 


102  MAX'S   RELATIOX   TO   MAN 

liberty  to  people  ^vho  wore  o]ipressed,  so  Germany's  great  idea  was 
that  she  should  nilo  tlie  world  by  land  and  by  sea. 

.Vinonfj;  all  the  (ireat  Powei-s  (5ennany  is  the  only  one  that  has  had 
no  real  ()])])ortinnt.y  to  expand  either  to  adjacent  territory  or  to  terri- 
toiy  hiufz;  just  across  neifz;hborinp;  seas.  Landward  she  was  henuned 
in  by  France,  xVustria,  and  Russia,  all  of  which  were  then  stronjz;  and 
were  in  the  process  of  expansion.  In  part  she  was  also  hennned  in  by 
the  Uttle  nations  of  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland 
which,  though  small,  arc  too  energetic  to  be  fields  for  expansion,  as 
Germany  found  to  her  cost  in  Belgium.  She  did,  to  be  sure,  expand 
a  little,  absorbing  part  of  Poland,  taking  Schleswig-Holstein  from 
Demnark,  and  Alsace-Lorraine  from  France.  This  gained  hvv  only 
a  small  area,  however,  and  increased  the  difficulty  of  farther  expansion 
by  arousing  antagonism  among  her  strong,  energetic  neighboi-s. 
Ex]iansi()n  by  water  to  the  north  has  been  impossible,  for  ISorway 
and  Sweden  are  as  energetic  and  highly  civilized  as  France  and 
Denmark,  and  their  boundaries  are  so  sharply  defined  that  there  can 
be  no  possible  dispute  as  to  where  they  he.  SeaAvard  her  expansion 
was  blocked  by  British  sea  power  and  by  the  fact  that  Britain 
had  already  acquired  a  vast  colonial  empire  before  the  Germans 
awoke  to  the  value  of  colonies. 

In  distant  and  backwaid  i)aits  of  the  world  Germany  also  found  it 
difficult  to  acquire  colonies.  In  the  early  days  of  the  modern  colonial 
movement  her  continental  position  did  not  encourage  her  i)eoi)lc  to  be 
world-wide  traders  hke  the  British.  Moreover,  the  many  German 
states  were  so  late  in  uniting  into  a  strong  empire  that  when  at  last 
CJermany  was  able  to  seek  colonies,  most  of  the  available  territory 
had  already  been  claimed  by  other  powers.  Yet  her  population  was 
increasing  greatly.  German  manufactured  goods  were  flooding  the 
world,  and  the  country  was  eager  to  exi)and  like  the  other  nations  of 
cyclonic  regions.  Germany,  to  be  sure,  obtained  a  few  colonics,  such 
as  German  lOast  Africa,  German  West  Africa,  Kamerun,  and  i)ar1  of 
New  CJuinea,  but  they  were  Ihc  scraps  left  over  after  tlic  Ixst  ])aits 
li.ad  been  taken,  and  they  did  not  sujijily  the  I'aw  jnalei-ials 
which  (lerjnaiiy  so  much  desii'cd.  Nevertheless  (iennaii  expansion 
was  boinid  t(»  coine  in  one  form  or  another. 

(1)  It  might  have  come  by  taking  ]X)ssession  of  South  Ajinerican 
regions  such  as  l^razil  and  AvgcMitina,  but  there  tlu^  T'nited  States 
with  its  Monroe  Doctrine  blocked  the  Nvay.  Germany-  knew  that  if 
she  encroached  in  America,  i'.rii.-iin  was  ready  to  use  her  licet  to  hclj) 
the  United  States,  and  Gerjuan  ])r()S]nM'ts  would  have  been  blasted 
ut  once. 

(2)  ( iermany's  ex])ansion  might  ha\'(>  come  1>\'  ciushing  one  of  her 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  403 

neighboi-s,  but  that  was  difficult  because  all  her  neighbors  are  ener- 
getic nations  living  in  the  cyclonic  region  of  gt'cat  energy.  IMoreover, 
they  were  largely  allied  with  one  another,  and  the  larger  nations 
had  agreed  to  protect  the  small  ones. 

(3)  Next  after  South  America  the  region  that  the  Germans  most 
desired  as  a  field  for  expansion  was  China.  Hence  they  took  Tsing- 
tau  on  Kiau-Chau  Bay,  and  began  to  exploit  the  province  of  Shan- 
tung. They  dared  not  go  farther,  however,  for  England,  France, 
Japan  and  Russia  all  were  looking  for  new  territory  in  China,  while 
the  United  States  was  trjdng  to  preserve  China  intact. 

(4)  Still  another  possible  field  of  expansion  was  Turkey,  the  only 
remaining  large  and  backward  part  of  the  world  which  no  strong 
nation  had  yet  converted  into  a  colony  or  at  least  protected  against 
the  aggression  of  other  nations. 

(5)  German  expansion  might  also  have  come  in  tlu>  new  way  which 
the  League  of  Nations  now  fostei-s.  She  might  have  spread  her  in- 
fluence through  the  peaceful  channels  of  trade,  education,  science,  and 
friendly  intercourse,  especially  in  eastern  Europe  and  Turkey,  just 
as  Japan  now  has  an  opportunity  to  do  in  China,  and  the  United 
States  in  Alexico  and  South  America. 

For  this  kind  of  expansion  the  German  prospects  were  particu- 
larly bright.  She  was  well  on  the  way  to  success,  but  the  process 
was  too  slow.  Ambitious  Germany  wanted  to  achieve  world  suprem- 
acy at  a  single  bound.  Therefore  she  chose  the  fourth  alt(n-native, 
and  began  to  seek  to  control  Turkey.  First  she  went  to  work  to 
build  the  Bagdad  Railway,  from  Constantinople  across  Asia  INlinor 
to  ]\Iesopotamia.  The  water  route  from  Germany  to  Turkey  is  long 
and  is  at  the  mercy  of  England.  There  is  a  short  and  safe  land  route, 
however,  through  Austria  and  tlie  Balkans.  If  Germany  could 
control  this  route  together  with  the  Bagdad  Railway  she  would  have 
a  direct  land  route  through  the  heart  of  the  prize  that  she  coveted. 
The  easiest  way  to  work  for  this  was  through  the  Germans  of  Austria, 
the  strongest  element  in  the  old  Austro-IIungarian  Emjiire.  Hence 
the  Germans  of  Germany  combined  with  those  of  Austria  to  gain 
control  of  Serbia,  the  nearest  t(n-ritory  available  for  that  puri)ose. 
That  led  to  the  Great  War,  during  tlie  first  three  years  of  which 
Germany  became  suprcinc  not  only  in  tin'  non-German  parts  of 
Austria,  but  in  Serbia,  ]>ulg;nia,  Ivujnania,  and  the  Turkish 
Empire. 

Thus  Germany  in  a  sudden  um-ighteous  outburst  and  with  the 
infliction  of  frightful  suffering,  carried  out  in  three  j'eai's  an  cx]xxnsion 
like  that  which  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  the  United  States  had 
accomplished  slowly  and  with  far  less  suffering  tluring  many  gcner- 


404  MAX'S   RELATION   TO   MAN 

ations.  If  Cormany  luul  acconii^lisluMl  tliis  ivsult  by  moans  of  poaco- 
ful  comiiiorcial  ix'iiotratiou  the  world  woukl  have  raised  no  objections 
pvater  than  those  raised  against  the  exi:)ansion  of  all  strong  countries. 
Because  she  disregardetl  treaties  and  did  deeds  which  no  civilizcnl 
people  can  tolerate,  the  whole  world  was  against  her,  and  she  lost 
not  only  her  recent  ill-gotten  gains,  but  her  earlier  ones  in  Denmark 
and  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  all  lun-  foreign  colonies. 

The  final  result  of  the  war  was  closely  in  accord  with  geograi)hical 
conditions.  Germany  was  defeated  by  the  western  nations  living  in 
the  most  bracing  cyclonic  areas.  Wherever  she  was  ])iitc(l  :i<raiiist 
nations  living  in  regions  less  invigorating  than  her  own  she  was  success- 
ful. After  her  tU^feat  on  the  west  she  could  not  remain  dominant  in 
the  Balkans  antl  Turkey'  because  England,  France,  and  Italy  arc  all 
interested  in  those  regions  and  can  easily  reach  them  by  water.  In 
central  Europe,  however,  the  war  left  a  number  of  small  new  nations, 
including  Austria,  Poland,  and  Czecho-Slovakia.  These  three,  to- 
gether with  a  gi'eatly  weakened  and  chaotic  Russia,  adjoin  Germany. 
The  Austrians,  being  Germans  in  race  and  language,  sj-mpathize 
with  their  fellow  Germans.  The  others  dislike  Germany,  but  she  is 
the  nearest  gi'eat  manufactming  nation,  and  the  one  to  which  they 
naturally  turn  for  capital,  for  engineei-s,  and  for  the  many  services 
which  less-developed  countries  constantly  seek  from  those  that  arc 
most  highly  developed.  The  countries  bordering  Germany  on  the 
east  stand  just  enough  behind  Germany  to  look  up  to  her  and  to  let 
her  dominate  their  commerce  and  industiy.  Thus  in  a  limited  s]ihere 
Germany  is  now  canying  out  the  commercial  method  of  expansion 
which  she  might  far  more  successfully  have  carried  out  on  a  much 
larger  scale  if  she  had  not  chosen  war  instead  of  peace.  Like  the 
other  great  cyclonic  nations  she  is  expanding,  and  her  expansion  is 
primarily  into  the  somewhat  w'eaker  regions  adjacent  to  her  on  the 
cast. 

Methods  of  Colonial  Control. — (1)  ExpIoilatio)i. — Tn  the  incnitable 
expansion  of  the  strong  nations  of  the  cyclonic  regions  into  other  cli- 
matic areas  four  different  methods  have  ])een  pui-sued:  (1)  ex])loita- 
tion,  (2)  absolute  control,  (3)  self  governjnent  under  foreign  con- 
trol, and  (4)  benevolent  regulation.  Exploitation  consists  of 
taking  ])(jssession  of  a  country  solely  to  squeeze  from  it  as  nuich 
wealth  as  possible.  The  early  Spanish  explorei*s  and  colonists  in 
Mexico,  Peru,  the  Philijijiines,  and  many  other  places  adopted  this 
method.  They  robbed,  o))pressed,  and  enslaved  the  natives  without 
thought  of  what  would  ha])i>en  in  the  future.  Hence  Spain's  colo- 
nics gave  her  great  wealth  for  a  lime,  but  soon  became  poverty- 
stricken  and  resentful.     When  she  tell  into  trouble  they  were  quick 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  403 

to  throw  off  her  ht^avy  yoke,  and   Spain  in   the  long  run  was  the 
loser. 

Unfortiniately  a  modified  form  of  this  method  of  exploitation  is 
still  common.  Individuals  from  oiu'  own  country  often  go  to  places 
like  Mexico,  get  hold  of  the  best  natural  resources,  and  make  fortunes 
as  quickly  as  possible  ^\•ith  no  thought  of  responsibility  for  the  natives. 
So  far  as  we  do  this  we  are  harming  our  own  countiy. 

(2)  Ahsohdc  Control. — -When  the  strong  nations  l)ecame  convinced 
that  mere  exploitation  of  colonies  did  not  pay,  most  of  tiiein  adopted 
the  method  of  absolute  control.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  rule  the 
colony  in  such  a  way  that  it  shall  yield  the  largest  possible  return  to 
the  mother  country,  but  shall  not  be  so  oppressed  that  it  becomes 
poorer.  This  is  the  commonest  method  at  present.  In  some  form 
it  is  pursued  by  practically'  all  the  colonizing  powers  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree.  Where  it  prevails  a  nation  rules  its  colonies  arbi- 
trarily, and  the  natives  are  given  little  or  no  share  in  the  governjnent. 
Fine  public  buildings  are  erected  to  impress  the  natives  with  the 
strength  of  the  government;  roads,  railroads,  warehouses,  wharves, 
and  other  facilities  for  commerce  are  provided ;  and  law  and  order 
are  carefullj^  preserved.  The  natives  neither  understand  nor  like 
such  methods.  Of  course  the  degree  to  which  the  rulers  control 
their  subjects  is  not  always  the  same.  In  the  German  colonies 
before  the  war,  for  example,  everything  was  su])ject  to  the  most 
strict  and  minute  regulations  ''made  in  Germany."  The  French 
have  followed  this  anticjuated  method  less  closely  and  their 
subjects  are  correspondingly  l)ctter  satisfied.  The  Dutch  at  fii'st 
pursued  the  method  rigidly  in  Java  and  other  places,  but  like  the 
other  colonial  powers  they  are  learning  that  it  does  not  pay.  The 
Austrians  tried  it  in  Bosnia  and  Dalmatia,  but  it  wa^  not  successful, 
and  was  one  reason  for  the  Serl)ian  trouble  in  1U14. 

(3)  SeJf-Covernment:  (a)  The  Bn'tli<}i  McOiod. — A  much  better 
colonial  method  is  that  of  the  British.  They  have  learned  this 
method  ])art  ly  because  of  tiu>  high  degi'ee  of  self-control  and  will  ])()wer 
which  has  always  characterizcnl  the  ])eoj)le  of  the  British  Isles,  and 
])artly  because  their  strong  colonies  in  cyclonic  regions  have  taught 
them  some  stern  lessons.  Nations  \\liicli  Ikuc  onl>'  weak,  tropical 
colonies  find  tluMU  so  easy  to  go\'ern  that  they  ilo  not  learn  to  res})ect 
the  rights  of  others. 

In  their  dealings  with  colonic^s  the  British  (Mn])hasize  thice  ]irinci- 
ples:  (1)  Tlu^  govtTnment  strives  forabsolut(^  justice.  The  white 
man,  no  matter  how  superior  he  ma}'  feel,  is  maile  to  obsen'c  the  law 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  huml)lest  troi)ical  native,  as  many  a 
traveler  in   India  lias  been  surprised   to  discover.     Of  coui"se  some 


40(3  MAN'S  iu:latiux  to  .man 

serioiu^  iiiistakrs  occur,  but  tlio  British  colonial  officials  arc  choson 
from  tlic  best  men  in  tii(>  country  and  arc  iillcd  with  the  idea  that  it 
is  tlicir  (hity  to  see  that  the  natives  have  fair  i)lay. 

(2)  The  British  colonies  have  a  voice  in  their  own  affairs.  From 
her  cxjx'rience  with  the  Ajnericaii  colonies  Britain  learned  that  tliis  is 
the  only  way  to  prevent  rehelHon.  Accordingly  the  present  British 
method  is  to  allow  conii)lete  self-frovernment  in  the  jnorc  advanced 
colonies  of  C'anathi,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa,  and  a 
considerable  measure  in  more  backward  countries  like  India.  So  far 
has  this  jirocess  <j;one  that  thi'  four  colonies  in  cyclonic  rej^ions  not  only 
control  their  own  internal  affairs  and  even  le\y  tariff  duties  against 
Great  Britain,  but  have  a  part  in  international  affairs  as  is  show^n  by 
their  seats  in  the  Assembly  of  the  League  of  Nations  and  their  re])re- 
sentatives  in  foreign  countries.  Even  India  is  fast  progressing  toward 
self-government,  and  already  has  a  seat  in  the  League  Asseml)l3\ 

(3)  The  British  do  not  attempt  to  force  their  own  civilization  upon 
the  nati^•es,  but  merely  offer  it  to  them  if  they  choose  to  take  it. 
Hence  the  natives  are  not  annoyed  by  minute  regulations,  and  are 
allow(Hl  to  live  according  to  their  own  laws  and  customs  so  far  as 
these  are  consistent  with  the  general  \\-elfare. 

The  result  of  these  three  priiHi))l('s  of  colonial  conduct^  is  that 
millions  of  ])e()])le  in  the  British  ])ossessions  are  to-day  extnunely 
loyal  to  the  empire.  They  ])ride  themselves  on  behig  British  subjects, 
and  even  full-blooded  Hindus  sometimes  speak  of  England  as  "home." 
Germany  ex])ected  that  India  would  rebel  during  the  Great  ^\'ar,  but 
it  enthusiastically  sent  troojis  and  su])plies  to  aid  the  Allies,  l^oth 
in  India  and  Ireland,  to  \)v  sure,  certain  groups  want  full  self-govcM'n- 
mcnt,  but  th(!  vast  majority  of  the  British  Empii'c  want  t(j  retain 
their  connection  with  the  mother  country. 

Self-government:  (b)  The  American  Md hod. — America  is  tiying 
a  colonial  method  which  carries  self-governjnent  a  step  farther 
than  in  British  colonies.  Our  ])lan  is  not  merely  to  'perniit  colo- 
nies to  enjoy  self-goveriunent  A\lieii  they  demand  it,  but  to  give 
theju  definite  training  in  order  to  fit  them  for  self-govei'innent  as 
soon  as  ])ossii)le.  ()ur  i)in'])ose  as  ])racticed  in  the  Phili])])iiies  and 
Porto  biro  is  to  1 1'eat.  t  he  colonies  as  good  ]);iveiits  treat  t.lieii-  cliildren, 
cliecking  them  if  they  do  wrong,  but  sti'iving  earnestly  to  aid  them  in 
their  edu<'ation.  As  fast  as  they  show  themselves  fit  to  take  charge 
of  I  heir  o\\  II  u()\-eiiiiiieiil.  we  want  1  hem  to  do  so.  W'e  oiilv  insist  that 
first  they  must,  learn.  We  think  that  t.hey  cannot  be  truly  trusted 
to  manage  their  own  go\'eriMnent,  milil  th(>y  ha^■e  learned  self-control, 
just  as  a  parent  would  not  letive  a  six-year-old  child  to  i)Iay  with  a 
i"azor. 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  407 

(4)  Benevolent  Regulation. — In  Cuba  a  new  and  promisinp; 
method  of  partnership  rather  than  control  has  been  estabHshed 
between  a  strong  nation  and  a  weaker  neighbor.  We  have  said  to 
the  Cubans,  "You  niaj^  govern  yourselves  so  long  as  you  govern 
properly.  If,  however,  you  have  a  revolution,  if  you  get  too  d('(>])Iy 
mto  debt,  or  if  in  other  ways  you  show  youi-selves  unfit,  we  shall 
intervene." 

Thus  without  exploiting  the  weaker  people  we  are  trj-ing  to  liclp 
them  forward  in  civilization.  That  is  the  method  which  has  become 
our  ideal.  Under  the  guidance  of  the  League  of  Nations  and  under 
the  mipulse  of  worldwide  pubhc  opinion  it  bids  fair  to  prevail  among 
all  the  strong  nations  who  live  in  the  stimulating  regions  of  cyclonic 
storms.  As  all  parts  of  the  world  become  more  and  more  closely 
bound  together  through  the  development  of  transportation,  industry, 
and  commerce,  the  strong  nations  have  ever-increasing  opportunities 
to  dominate  the  others.  The  world  is  fast  becoming  a  gi'eat  family 
of  nations  just  as  our  own  country  is  a  family  of  States.  If  one 
nation  remains  poor,  ignorant,  vicious,  misgoverned,  discontented, 
all  the  nations  suffer,  just  as  the  whole  United  States  suffei^s  if  po^'erty, 
ilUteracy,  crune,  violence,  or  discontent  prevail  in  any  of  our  States. 
If  the  world  is  to  go  forward  rather  tlian  backward  the  strong  nations 
must  remember  that  the  more  a  nation  can  promote  the  progress  and 
especially  the  contentment  of  other  nations,  the  more  it  is  doing  for 
itself  and  for  the  whole  world. 


QUESTIONS,   EXERCISES,   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  Discuss  the  exjiansion  of  Italy  accordinfj  to  the  inotliod  used  for  tlio  other 
great  powers.  Show  how  the  location  and  character  of  the  Italian  colonies  arc 
related  to  (a)  the  location  of  Italy;  {b)  the  rapidity  with  which  Italy  has  devel- 
oped i)olitically  and  commercially;  (c)  the  relative  size  of  the  Italian  niercliant 
marine  and  navy  compared  with  those  of  other  countries. 

Look  up  the  geographic  conditions  which  led  to  (a)  the  problem  of  '"Italia 
Irredenta"  (Unredeemed  Italy)  during  the  Great  AVar;  (6)  the  Fiume  question 
at  the  end  of  the  war;   (c)  Italy's  interest  in  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

2.  Make  a  map  to  show  the  former  colonial  empires  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Write  notes  on  the  climate,  position,  and  i)roducts  of  each  of  the  parts.  Com- 
pare the  actual  degree  of  self-government  and  civil  liberty  in  these  regions  at 
present  with  those  in  the  British  dominions  of  Canada  and  Australia.  What 
has  this  to  do  with  the  geographic  environment?  ^^'hat  efTect  has  it  on  inter- 
national relationships? 

3.  Consider  the  following  statements,  and  write  a  synopsis  of  the  g(>()grapliical 
conditions  which  exi)lain  them: 

A.    "Newfoundland  and  Tasmania  are  two  islands  each  of  which  has  a 
pojiulation  of  something  over  200,000.     They  are  identical  in    race, 


IDS  MAX'S   KELATIOX   TO   MAN 

languaRO,  idoals,  and  civilization.     Ncvcrtholcss,  the  United   States 
is  far  more  interested  in  Newfoundland  than  in  Tasmania." 
B.    "France  and  Germany  are  near  neighbors  yet  they  are  bitterly  hostile, 
while    the    French-speaking    Swiss    have    no    hostility    toward     the 
( lerman-speaking  Swiss." 
C    "Similarity  of  race,  language  and  liabits  is  the  foundation  of  the  won- 
derful loj-alty  of  the  English-speaking  British  colonies  toward  their 
mother-country." 
D.   "The  feeling  of  the  ])C(ipl('  of  the  United  States  is  much  wanner  toward 
Belgium  than  towards  \'en(>zuela  because  the  habits  of   Belgium  and 
the  United  States  are  much  more  alike  than  those    of  the  United 
States  and  Venezuela." 

4.  Go  over  the  four  statements  given  in  Problem  3,  and  frame  a  general 
statement  as  to  the  chief  factors  making  for  international  friendships  and  enmities. 
Separate  the  factors  into  ge()grai)hical  and  non-geographical. 

5.  On  the  basis  of  your  general  statement  of  Problem  4,  exjilain  the  inter- 
national relations  of  the  United  States  with  (a)  Japan;  (b)  Canada;  (c)  Mexico. 
Examine  the  volume  of  their  trade  with  the  United  States;  the  numlur 
of  their  citizens  in  this  country;  the  number  and  nature  of  the  lines  of  com- 
munication; the  habits,  languages,  methods  of  government.  Prei)are  a  sum- 
mary of  the  geographical  conditions  which  are  most  important  in  each  case. 

6.  Consider  the  hostility  between  Germany  and  England  before  the  Great 
War  and  discuss  it  in  the  light  of  your  general  statement  of  Problem  4.  Con- 
sider in  this  connection  (a)  position  in  respect  to  the  ocean;  (6)  opportunities  for 
colonization  and  for  busine.ss;  (c)  similarity  or  dissimilarity  of  occupations  and 
products  by  reason  of  (1)  climate,  (2)  resources,  (3)  race. 

7.  Make  a  tracing  of  the  Rhine  showing  (a)  the  Dutch  part  at  the  inoutli  and 
one  port;  (b)  the  boundaries  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine;  (r)  the  \'alley  of  the  Ruhr 
and  three  towns;  (d)  the  Vosges  Mountains  and  the  Black  Forest.  Define  the 
boundaries  of  Belgium  and  Luxemburg.  Discuss  the  part  played  in  the  Great 
War  b\-  the  geographic  conditions  thus  shown. 

8.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  apply  difTerent  kinds  of  shading  to 
each  of  the  following  areas:  (a)  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain;  (//)  the  (Jreat  Lakes 
region;  (c)  the  Mississippi  valley;  (d)  the  Pacific  coastal  regions.  Discuss  an 
international  problem  in  which  each  of  these  is  particularly  interested.  Show 
how  their  interest  depends  on  geographical  environment. 

9.  Make  three  maps  showing  (o)  French  expansion  into  Africa;  (/))  Italian 
expan.sion  into  Africa;  (c)  all  the  spheres  of  influence  of  the  United  States  near 
the  Panama  Zone.  Point  out  the  resemblances  and  dilTerences  in  the  exjjansion 
of  these  three  countries,  and  explain  them  so  far  as  they  are  geograi)hical. 

10.  Make  maps  showing  {<t)  the  main  trade  routes  of  Eurojie  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America;  {h)  the  main  routes  after  the  discovery  of  America  and  before 
the  making  of  the  Suez  Canal;    (c)  the  routes  of  the  jiresent  day. 

In  the  light  of  the  maps  comment  on  the  commercial  advantages  of  (a)  Eng- 
ImihI:    (/>)  Austria;    (c)  Italy,  in  the.se  three  periods. 

11.  Find  out  from  the  Statesman's  Yearbook  the  ten  nations  having  the 
greatest  trade  with  the  United  States.  Add  the  imports  and  exports  together 
in  each  ca.se  and  arrange  the.se  nations  in  the  order  of  their  commercial  importance 
to  the  United  States.  In  parallel  colunms  write  notes  on  their  propinquity, 
climate,  chief  natural  resources,  health  and  energy,  manufactures,  language, 
and  civilization  as  compared  with  those  of  the  United  States.  Name  an  inter- 
national problem  in  which  each  is  involved  with  the  Ihiited  States. 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  409 

12.  Why  is  it  that  the  United  States  is  in  such  close  touch  with  western 
Europe  while  the  intercourse  between  China  and  Japan  is  very  hmited?  What 
strictly  geographical  factors  play  a  part  in  this? 

13.  The  international  relationshijjs  of  China  are  unicjuc.  This  is  partly  a 
matter  of  racial  character  and  historical  development,  but  geographical 
conditions  enter  into  it.  Describe  these  conditions  and  their  international 
results.  Among  other  things  consider  the  following:  (a)  the  effect  of  density 
of  population  on  China's  prosperity  at  home  and  on  foreign  trade;  (h)  China's 
degree  of  geographic  diversity  or  uniformty,  and  its  elTect  on  both  internal 
and  external  trade;  (c)  the  boundaries  of  China  and  their  effect  on  international 
relations;  {d)  the  relatively  inert  character  of  the  Chinese;  (c)  the  position 
of  Japan  relative  to  that  of  other  energetic  nations;  (/)  the  energy  of  Japan  rela- 
tive to  that  of  other  Asiatic  nations;  (g)  the  resources  of  China;  (h)  the  accessi- 
bilit}'  of  the  Chinese  coast  and  of  the  interior,  and  the  development  of  transporta- 
tion. 


INDEX 


Abyssinia,  measurement  of  time  in,  25 

Acorns  as  food,  92 

Activity,  mental,  see  Mental  activity 

— ,  physical,  see  Physical  activity 

Aden,  water  supply  of,  143 

Adiroudacks,  as  tourist  resort,  98 

Afghanistan,  gold  in,  176 

— ,  raids  in,  97 

Africa,  Central,  see  Central  Africa 

— ,  disadvantages  of  desert,  68 

— ,  French  possessions  in,  400 

— ,  healthful  seacoast  of,  106 

— ,  land  connections  of,  58 

— ,  railroads  of,  72 

Agriculture,  and  fisheries,  110 

— ,  —  vegetation,  264 

—  in  Aleppo,  297 

,  England,  263 

,  tropics,  282 

,  jungle,  281 

—  plantation,  287  f . 

Air,  rising  and  cooling  (diagram),  215 
Airships,  use  of  westerlies  b}-,  214 
Alabama,  soil  of,  4,  156 
Alaska,  clotlung  in,  7 
— ,  effect  of  long  days,  38 
— ,  mining  in,  170 
— ,  time  in,  29 
Aleppo,  journey  to,  294  f. 
— ,  manufacturing  in,  295 
— ,  trade  in,  295 
Aleutian  Islands,  time  in,  29 
Algeria,  French  expansion  to,  400 
Alpine  County,  Cal.,  84 
Alps  as  political  boundary,  387 
— ,  —  tourist  resort,  98 
— ,  mountain  meadows  of,  91 
Alsace-Lorraine,    accjuisition    by    Ger- 
many, 389 


Altitude,  effect  on  the  blood,  81 

— , climate,  82 

— , clouds,  82 

— , rain,  82 

— , temperature,  82 

Aluminum,  183  f. 

— ,  abundance  of,  169 

Amazon  basin,  health  in,  210 

—  River,  climate  of,  4 

,  depth  and  breadth  of,  133 

America,  effect  of  British  cxj)ansion  in, 
392 

— ,  monsoon  regions  of,  304  f. 

— ,  see  also  North  America 

American  Indians,  origin  of,  58 

"  — -  Mediterranean,"  61 

Amur  River,  seasonal  changes  of,  135 

Andes,  religion  in,  11 

Animal  migration,  a  geographic  vari- 
able, 360 

—  products,  342  f . 

Animals,  as  source  of  power,  186 
— •  domestic,  of  rain  forests,  278 

,  —  Savanna,  271 

,  —  tropics,  187,  283 

— ,  feature  of  enviroiunent,  5 

— ,  importance  of,  263  ff. 

— ,  migrations  of,  55 

Anti-cyclones,  216 

— ,  influence  on  weather,  217 

Apatite,  phosphates  in,  163 

Aphelion,  43 

Appalachians  as  mining  region,  167 

— ,  loss  of  soil  in,  90 

— ,  political  effect  of  relief,  379 

— ,  transportation  in,  87 

Apples,  92 

Arabian  Desert;   vegetation  in,  312 

Arabs,  character  of,  315 

— ,  poverty  of,  314 


411 


412 


INDEX 


Arabs,  raids  of,  374 

Arclianncl,  seaport  of  Russia,  381 

ArKeiilina,  climate  of,  255 

— ,  education  in,  11 

— ,  fooil  of,  7 

Arizona,  acquisition  by  U.  .S.,  398 

— ,  copper  in,  181 

— ,  irrigation  in,  320 

— ,  population  in,  326 

— ,  relief  of,  167 

Artisans,  scarcity  in  mountains,  95 

Artesian  wells,  sec  Wells,  artesian 

Asia,  cause  of  monsoons  in,  235 

— ,  Central,  sec  Central  Asia 

— ,  Khirghiz  nomads  of,  12  f . 

— ,  location  of,  62 

— ,  railroads  of,  70 

— ,  relation  to  the  sea,  63 

— ,  relief  of,  63 

— ,  shape  and  size  of,  63 

Assuan  Dam,  327 

Atacama  Desert,  nitrates  in,  165 

Atlantic  drift,  61 

,  effect  on  Eurojiean  climate,  2;V2 

Atmospheric  pressure,  see  Pressure 

Australia,  climate  of,  255 

— ,  effect  of  British  expansion  on,  393 

— ,  isolation  of,  58 

— ,  railroads  of,  72 

— ,  shape  and  relation  to  sea,  69 

Australian  break,  58 

Axis,  inclination  of,  36 

,  effect  on  climatic  belts,  217 

B 

Bacteria,  363 

— ,  in  water,  141 

Bagdad    railway,    a    cause    of    Great 

War,  403 
Bahamas,  climate  in,  257 
Baku,  water  sui)i)ly  of,  143 
Balka.sh  salt  lake,  13 
Balk.'ins,  effect  of  relief  on,  379 
lialtic  Provinces,  Germans  in,  390 
Bananas,  food  value  of,  355 
— ,  plantations,  287 
Bangkok  harl)or,  26 
"  Banks,"  fisheries  cm,  108,  109 
liarlcy,  distribution  of,  337 
Barriers,  climate,  sec  Climate  as  barrier 
— ,  water,  sec  Water  barriers 


Basin  regions,  character  of,  80 

Beans,  food  value  of,  354 

lieasts  of  burd(>n  in  rain  forest,  278 

Bedouin  Arab,  314 

lieets,  fertilizers  for,  160 

Belgium,  coal  and  iron  in,  179 

— ,  victim  of  location,  378 

Bengal,  population  of,  85 

Bhutan,  population  of,  84 

Bismarck,  climate  of,  104 

Black  Belt  in  Alabama  and  Georgia,  156 

Black  Death,  362 

"  Black  Earth  "  region  of  Russia,  5 

"  Black  England,"  383 

Black  forest,  woodworking  in,  96 

Bog  iron,  source  of,  129 

Bolivia  claims  Atacama  Desert,  165 

Boll  weevil,  migrations  of,  360 

Bones,  source  of  phosphates,  163 

Bosphorus,  British  influence  in,  381 

Boston  fishing  trade,  109 

—  harbor,  36 

— ,  sewage  disposal  in,  106 
Boundaries,  artificial,  388,  389 

—  of  Central  Europe,  390 

— ,  political  influence  of,  387,  388 
— ,  unfortified,  389 
Brahmaputra  River,  current  of,  134 
lirest  harbor,  120  ff. 
Bridges  over  IMississipi)i  River,  130 
British  Emt)ire,  government  in  parts  of, 
10 

,  growth  of,  394  f . 

,  coal  and  iron  in,  395 

—  Guiana,  sugar  raising  in,  2S9 
Bronze  Age,  177 

Bushes  and  scrub,  265 

—  in  deserts,  273 

Butte,  Montana,  suli)hurous  smoke  in, 
183 

c 

Cacao  plantations,  287 

Cactus,  273 

Cairo,  water  barriers  of ,  131 

Calendars,  25,  26 

Calms,  equatorial,  213 

California,  acquired  by  U.  S.,  398 

— ,  astronomy  in,  11 

— ,  big  t  r(>es  of,  370 

— ,  cattle  raising  in,  91 


INDEX 


413 


California,  climate  of,  300 

— ,  effect  of  relief  on  orange  growing 
in,  240 

— ,  fruit  raising  in,  303 

— ,  hydraulic  mining  in,  171 

— ,  irrigation  in,  320 

— ,  population  of,  84 

— ,  prospecting  in,  168 

— ,  subtropical  climate  of,  300 

— ,  —  farming  in,  302  f . 

— ,  temperature  contrasts  in,  223 

— ,  wheat  raising  in,  302 

Camels,  315 

Canada,  climate  compared  with  Ba- 
hamas, 257 

— ,  effect  of  long  days  on,  38 

— ,  French  emigration  to,  400 

— ,  trade  with  Great  Britain,  401 

— U.  S.,  401 

— ,  unfortified  boundary,  389 

Canals,  German,  136 

Cape  Cod,  vegetation  of,  5 

—  Girardeau,  bridge  at,  130 
Carbohydrates,  350 

Cardamum  mountains,  irrigation  from, 

319 
Caribbean  Sea,  61 
Carnegie,  Andrew,  181 
Carolinas,  monsoon  influence  in,  305 
Caspian   Sea  as    measure  of  .'climatic 
cycles,  369 

,  effect  on  rainfall,  128 

Catawba  River,  water  power  of,  144 
Cattle,  distribution  of,  339 

—  herding  among  Khirghiz,  19 

—  in  California,  302 

cyclonic  regions,  340 

India,  48,  340 

South  America,  340 

Switzerland,  91 

—  raising  among  mountains,  91 
Central  Africa,  clothing  in,  2 
,  progress  of,  1 

—  America,  salt  in,  107 

—  Asia,  progress  of,  1 

—  Europe,  boundaries  of,  390 
Cereal  crops  of  the  plains,  91 
Ceylon,  rice  farming  in,  283 
Character,  effect  of  climate  on,  250 
— , irrigation  on,  328 

—  of  desert  people,  316 


Charleston,  S.  C,  artesian  well  at,  142 
Chatham  Islands,  time  in,  29 
Cheese,  food  value  of,  354 
Chemical  agents  in  formation  of  soil, 
154 

—  impurities  of  water,  140 
Chemicals  for  plant  growth,  160 
Chenab  River,  irrigation  from,  319 
Chicago,  effect  of  lake  on,  128 

— ,  sewage  disposal  in,  106 

— ,  water  barriers  of,  131 

system,  143 

Chile,  climate  of,  255 

— ,  war  over  Atacama  Desert,  165 

China,  bacteria  in  water  supply,  141 

— ,  climate  of,  5 

— ,  coal  mines  in,  201 

— ,  density  of  population,  296 

— ,  diet  of,  356 

— ,  famine  in,  298 

— ,  forests  in,  93,  276 

— ,  geographical  isolation  of,  10 

— ,  German  expansion  in,  403 

— ,  gold  in,  176 

— ,  intensive  farming  in,  296 

— ,  irrigation  in,  327 

— ,  life  in,  296  f. 

— ,  loess  in,  311 

— ,  trade  relations  with  Japan,  401 

— ,  use  of  terraces  in  fanning,  90 

Chincha  Islands,  guano  from,  1()3 

Christianity,  influence  of  sheep  raising 
on,  11 

Chronometers,  31,  32 

Cinnamon  jilantations,  288 

Cities  effect  of  water  barriers  on  loca- 
tion of,  131  f. 

— ,  of  U.  S.,  and  water  transporta- 
tion, 122 

— ,  water  systems  of,  142 

Civil  War,  effect  of  A])p;ilacliian  relief 
on,  379 

, Canadian    boundaries    on, 

389 

, climate  on  ,  384  f . 

Civilization,  among  mountains,  78,  95 

—  and  metals,  167  f . 

oceans,  12  1  ff. 

vegetation,  270 

— ,  climate  and  tliedistribution  of,  257  f 
— ,  distribution  of  vegetation  and,  270  f. 


•Ill 


INDEX 


Civilization,  rarly,  olTort  of  sranty  iron 

on,  177  f. 
— ,  efTcct  of  coal  on,  194 

— , cyclonic  storms  on,  3131 

— , iron  on,  17S 

— , irrigation  on.  327 

— , plantations  on,  -i'.lO 

—  on  the  plains,  78 

—  and  rice  farming  in  tropics,  284 
Clams,  108 

Clay  soil,  1.55 
Climate,  205  ff. 

— .  and  the  distribution  of  civilization, 
257  ff. 

food  supply,  209 

human  energj%  248  ff . 

work  of  man,  254  f . 

—  as  barrier  in  deserts,  206 

frigid  zone,  206 

tropical  forests,  206 

mountains,  205 

on  oceans,  205 

source  of  British  energy,  395 

— ,  cyclonic,  330 

— ,  efifect  of  altitude  on,  82 

— , Atlantic  Drift  on  Kur()]K';ui, 

232 

— , Labrador  Current  on   N(-\v 

iMigland,  232 

— , land  and  sea  on,  22)5  ff . 

— , relief  on,  23S  iT. 

— ,  —  on  human  energy,  374 

— , man's  health,  248 

— , political  relations,  384 

— , war  and  peace,  384 

—  favorable,  in  England,  251,  254 
,  —  Europe,  254 

— ,  geographic  variable,  359 

— ,  in  human  geography,  4 

— ,  —  relation    to    health   .iih!    ciicr^iy, 

209  f. 
— ,  influence    of    Miilili  rnmcaii    lircak 

on,  f.O 
— ,  —  on  clKuactcr,  256 

— , Khirghiz,  14 

— , soil,  158  f. 

— ,  marine  versus  continental,  224  fT. 

—  of  Argentina,  255 
Australia,  255 

Bahamas  and  Canada,  257 

Chile,  255 


Climate    of    continents    and     oceans, 
223  fT. 

Europe,  efTect  of  .\tlantic  Drift 

on,  232 

Jai)an,  254 

New  Zealand,  255 

Ontario,  257 

Russia,  397 

southern  continents,  68 

U.  S.,  254 

Verkhoyansk,  224 

western  Europe,  01 

— ,  variabilitj-  of,  210 
Climatic  belts,  effect  of  revolution,  and 
inclination  of  axis  on,  217 

—  cycles,  ancient,  368  f . 

,  effect   on    economic    prosperity, 

371 

—  — , human  energy,  374 

, man,  371  ff. 

, ]X)litical  life,  374 

,  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  375 

,  latitude  variations  of,  371 

,  tree  growth,  370 

—  energy,  255  ff. 

—  factors,  211 

—  zones,  205  ff. 

,  origin  of,  211  f. 

Clouds,  effect  of  altitude  on,  82 
— ,  source  of,  103 

Coal,  and  British  expansion,  395 
— ,  as  source  of  jiower,  1S9 

—  beds,  abundance  of,  169 
— ,  conservation  of,  192 

—  deposits,  distribution  of  (inap),  191, 

344 

, in  i)lains  and  hills,  IGS 

, Russia,  3!)7 

— ,  nationalization  of,  'AS'.i 

—  production,  distribution    of    (map), 

191 

—  regions,  life  of,  193 

Coastal  plain  in  Alabama  aiul  (Jeorgia, 

156 
Cod,  food  value  of,  109,  354 
Coffee  i)lantations,  287 
"  C^)g{>n  "  grass  in  Phili|)i)ines,  282 
Cold  wave,  effects  of,  253 
Colonial  ex])ansion,  sec  Ex])ansion 

—  control,  methods,  404  ff. 
,  — ,  absolute,  405 


INDEX 


415 


Colonial  control,  American,  406 

,  — ,  benevolent  relations,  407 

,  — ,  British,  405 

,  — ,  exploitation,  404 

,  — ,  self  government,  40G 

Comstock  Lode,  171 
Colorado,  irrigation  in,  322 
— ,  prospecting  in,  168 

—  Iliver,  irrigation  from,  320 
Commerce  among  Khirghiz,  19 

—  and  inland  waterways,  133  ff . 
political  boundaries,  388 

— ,  influence  of   Mediterranean   Break 

on,  60 
— ,  oceans  as  carriers  of,  113 
Congo,  climate  of,  5 
Congressional  appropriations  for  coast 

and  interior,  378 
Coniferous  forests,  275 
Conservation  of  coal,  192 

minerals,  185 

petroleum,  197 

Constantinople,  political  importance  of, 

61,  381 
Continental  climate,  at  Verkhoyansk, 

224 
versus  marine,  224 

—  interiors,  summer  rains  in,  235 
Continents,  arrangement  of,  51 
— ,  breaks  between,  58 

— ,  climate  of,  223  ff. 

— ,  continuity  of,  55 

— ,  direction  of  winds  over,  227 

— ,  effect  on  pressure,  227 

— ,  general  description,  62 

— ,  influence  on  temperature,  223 

— ,  isolation  of,  58 

— ,  winds  in  relation  to,  227 

Contour  plowing,  90 

Contraction  of  the  earth,  51 

Copper  Age,  177 

— ,  distribution  of,  182 

— ,  human  i)r()gress  influenced  l)y,  isl 

— ,  production  of,  in  U.  S.,  181 

Corn  and  rainfall,  367 

— ,  distribution  of,  336 

— ,  use  in  whisky  making,  87 

Cost  of  living,  174 

locomotives,  115 

ships,  115 

Costa  Rica,  fruits  of,  5 


Cotton  belt  in  Alabama  and  Georgia, 

156 
— ,  distribution  of,  343 

—  in  Southern  States,  384 

—  weevil,  360 
Council  of  Nicaea,  26 
Crops,  acorns,  92 

— ,  apples,  92 
— ,  nuts,  91 

—  of  cyclonic  regions,  343 

irrigated  lands,  325  f. 

— ,  rotation  of,  159  f. 

Cuba,  American  protectorate,  399,  407 
— ,  stable  government  in,  387 
— ,  sugar  in,  289 
Currants,  in  Greece,  325 
Currents,  effect  on  navigation,  134 

—  of  Indian  Ocean,  234 

—  —  Pacific  whirl,  234 
Cyclones,  see  Cyclonic  storms 
— ,  anti,  see  Anti-cyclones 
Cyclonic  climate,  330 

—  regions,  cattle  in,  340 

,  civilization  of,  331 

,  crops  of,  343 

,  density  of  population,  344 

,  diet  in,  333  f .,  357 

— ■  — ,  government  in,  347 

,  inventions  in,  347 

,  raw  materials  in,  340 

,  transportation  in,  343 

— •  — ,  vegetation  of,  330 
,  world  markets  in,  346 

—  storms,  216  ff. 

,  beneficial  effect  of,  253  f . 

,  effect  on  man's  work,  330  f. 

,  influence  on  weather,  217 

,  location,  330 

D 

Daisy,  migrations  of,  361 
Dakotas,  open  winters  in,  235 
Dannemora,  Sweden,  iron  works,  188 
Danube,  hinterland  of,  135 
Dardanelles,  British  influence  in,  3S1 
Daylight,  cause  of  variations  in  length, 

39 
— ,  effect  on  human  habits,  38 

— , seeds,  38 

— , temperature,  38 

Dead  reckoning,  30 


•no 


INDEX 


Dead  sea,  salt  nature  of,  312 

Deciduous  forests,  275 

Defleetion  of  winds,  213 

Denmark,  energy  of,  12 

— ,  oeeui)ations  in,  S 

Desert,  Arabian,  312 

— ,  belt,  seasons  in,  220 

— ,  character  of  inhabitants,  316 

—  grasses,  312 

—  lakes,  cause  of  salt  in,  311 
— ,  mode  of  washing  in,  314 
— ,  modes  of  life  in,  309  f.,  314 
— ,  Mohave,  313 

—  nomads,  ])roi)erty  of,  314 

—  raids,  caiLsed  by  poverty,  315 
— ,  s;ilt  lakes  of,  311 

— ,  Syrian,  314 

— ,  Takla  Makan  of  Cliina,  311 

— ,  Transcaspian,  312 

Deserts,  appearance  of  dry,  310 

— ,  climate  as  barrier  in,  206 

— ,  effect  of  scanty  rainfall,  310 

— ,  frozen,  of  the  North,  316 

— ,  gravel,  312 

— ,  homes  in,  317 

— ,  polar,  275 

— ,  population  of,  309 

— ,  sandy,  310 

— ,  vegetation  of,  273,  312 

Diet  of  cyclonic  regions,  357 

equatorial  rain  forests,  355 

monsoon  regions,  350 

polar  regions,  354 

subtropical  regions,  356 

tropical  jungles,  355 

world,  350  fT. 

Disea-ses,  influence  of  climate  on,  210 

— ,  migrations  of,  302 

Distribution  of  ijojjulation,  82 

Dockage  space,  117 

Dog,  use  among  Eskimos,  317 

Domestic  animals,  ncc  Animals,  domes- 
tic 

"Drift"  in  Wisconsin,  157 

"Driftless"  area  in  Wisconsin,  15R 

Drought,  summer,  in  sul)tropical  re- 
gions, 297. 

Dry  farming,  305 

Dryness  in  winter,  indoor,  252 

Dunes,  312 

Dutcli,  cliiiraclfristics  of,  0 


E 
Earth,  contraction  of,  51 
— ,  effect  of  form   and   movements  on 

map  making,  43 
— ,  garment  of  vegetation  of,  263  ff. 
— ,  revolution  of,  30 

— , ,  effect  on  climatic  belts,  217 

— , ,  measurement  of  time,  25 

— ,  rotation  of,  measurement   of   time. 

25 
Earthquakes,  location  of,  55 
East  coasts,  or  monsoon  regions,  293 
Easter,  date  of,  26 
Education,  among  Khirgliiz,  21 
— ,  effect  of  local  conditions  on,  10,  11 
Efficiency,  among  Khirghiz,  20 
— ,  dependence    on    geographical    sur- 

roimdings,  9 
EgjT^t,  influence  of  England  in,  394 
— ,  irrigation  in,  319,  327 
— ,  lack  of  iron  in,  177 
— ,  population  of,  326 
Electricity,  age  of,  177 
Emerged  coast,  recreation  on,  105 
Energy  and  climAte,  209,  24S  f. 
— ,  climatic,  255  f. 
— ,  measurement  of,  248  f. 
— ,  see  also  Mental  activity;  Pliysical 

activity 
— ,  variations  in,  249 
England,  climate  of,  5,  251,  254 
— ,  coal  and  iron  in,  179 
— ■,  education  in,  10 
• — ,  free  trade  vs.  protection  in,  383 
— ,  iron  smelting  in,  179 
— ,  island  character  of,  394 

—  -,  market  gardens  in,  358 
— ,  relation  to  sea,  382 

— ,  rivalry  with  Germany,  382 

— , Russia,  381 

— ,  submerged  coast  of,  394 

— ,  trade  of,  340 

— ,  worldwide  investments  of,  382 

I'liiglish  Channel,  tunnel  imder,  113 

E(iuatorial  l)elt  of  low  ))ressure,  212  f. 

—  — ,  rainfall  in,  215,  218 

—  calms,  213 

—  currents,  230 

—  forests,  277  ff. 

— ,  see  also  llain  forest;  Jungle 
iMluinox,  40 


INDEX 


417 


Erie,  Lake,  see  Lake  Erie 

Erosion,  90 

Eskimos,  characteristics  of,  5,  317 

— ,  diet  of,  316,  354 

— ,  effect  of  climate  on,  209 

Europe,  climate  of,  254 

— ,  effect  of  Atlantic  Drift  on,  232 

— ,  death  rate  in,  348 

— ,  favorable  location  of,  64 

— ,  health  in,  250 

— ,  importance  of,  66 

— ,  migration  from,  365 

— ,  railroads  of,  69 

— ,  shape  and  relation  to  sea,  66 

— ,  size  and  relief,  64 

— ,  waterways,  map  of,  137 

— ,  western,  see  Western  Europe 

Expansion,  methods  of  colonial,  392  f ., 

404  f. 
Exploitation,  a  method  of  colonial  con- 
trol, 404 
Exports,  study  of,  349 


Falls,  source  of  water  power,  147 
Famine,  effect  of  seasonal  rains  on, 298  f . 

—  in  China,  298 
India,  298 

subtropical  regions,  356 

Farming,  dry,  365 

— ,  effect  of  the  soil,  153  f. 

— , rapid  erosion  on,  90 

—  in  California,  302  f . 
China,  296 

— ,  use  of  terraces  in,  90 

Ferries,  130 

Fertilizers,  use  of,  160  ff. 

Fiji  Islander,  effect  of  climate  on,  209 

Fish,  food  value  in  China,  356 

Fisheries  and  agriculture,  110 

suVjmerged  coasts,  110 

—  as  a  source  of  food,  108 

— , school  for  seamanship,  11 1 

— ,  control  by  govermnent,  lOS 

— ,  deep  sea,  109 

— ,  effect  of  latitude  on,  110 

—  in  Japan,  108 

Newfoundland,  363 

Norway,  108 

United  States,  92,  108 

■ — ,  salmon,  109 


Fisheries,  shallow  water,  108 

Fishing  communities,  location  of,  110  f. 

—  grounds  of  Japan,  109 

North  Sea,  109 

United  States,  109 

Fiume  and  fishing.  111 

Florida,  effect  of  monsoons  on,  304 

• — , soil  on  population  of,  306 

— ,  emerged  coast  of,  105 
Fogs,  cause  of,  232 
Food  from  inland  waters,  129 
oceans,  107 

—  of  cyclonic  regions,  333  f . 
world,  350  ff. 

—  supply  and  climate,  209 

—  values,  350 
Foreign  trade,  349 
Forest  conservation,  93 

—  fire  wardens,  95 

—  rangers,  95 

—  service  in  United  States,  93 
Forests,  coniferous,  275,  331 

• — ,  deciduous,  275 

— ,  equatorial  rain,  see  Rain  forest 

—  in  China,  276 
— ,  location  of,  92 

— ,  subtropical  drj^,  274 

"Fowlers"  of  Seistan,  377 

France,  African  possessions  of,  400 

— ,  coal  and  iron  in,  179 

— ,  expansion  of,  399  f. 

— ,  food  of,  358 

— ,  government  in,  10 

— ,  soil  of,  4 

— ,  trade  with  Germany,  401 

— ,  vinej-ards  in,  3t)l 

Fruit  in  irrigated  rcigons,  325 

Fruit-raising  in  California,  303 

Fuel,  types  of,  188 

G 

Galveston  hurricane,  363 
CJary,  Ind.,  port  of,  120 
Gas,  natural,  see  Natural  gas 
German  canals,  waterway  of,  136 

—  influence  in  Turkey,  310 

—  steel  combine,  ISO 

Germany,  and  Fnglish  sea  power,  382 
— ,  artificial  boiuularies  of,  389 
— ,  coal  and  iron  in,  179 
— ,  education  in,  1 1 


418 


INDEX 


Gcniiany,  ox]iansion  in  China,  403 
— ,  —  of,  401  f . 
— ,  potato  crop  in,  336 
Geographic  constants,  359 

—  variables,  359 

Geography,    and   iJohtical    boiuidarics 
387  f. 

tariff  in  United  States,  385 

tlie  Monroe  Doctrine,  380 

— ,  influence  on  Khirghiz,  21 

— ,  political,  377  ff. 

George's  Bank,  109 

Georgia,  effect  of  soil  on,  156 

— ,  loss  of  soil  in,  90 

Ghats,  319 

(Jibraltar,  military  inii)ortanre  of,  Gl 

Glacial  lakes,  148 

Glaciers,  soil  inijiroved  liv,  157 

Glaciated  regions,  water  jiower  of,  147  f. 

Gloucester,  fishing  trade  of,  109 

Gobi  desert,  loess  in,  311 

Gold,  economic  importance  of,  174  f. 

—  mining,  170  f. 
Government  among  Khirghiz,  20 

—  among  Xomads,  316 

—  control  of  fisheries,  108 

— ,  effect  of  local  conditions  on,  10 

—  in  cyclonic  regions,  347 
Great  Circle  sailing,  49 

Great  Lakes,  as  boundaries,  389 

,  value  of,  68 

,  waterway  of,  135  f. 

Great  Britain,  central  location  of,  394 

,  coal  deposits  in,  189 

,  Empire    of,  see  British  Empire* 

,  exjiansion  of,  392  f . 

, ,  by  sea,  394  f. 

,  food  and  raw  material  su])i)ly  of, 

3% 

,  island  home  of,  394 

,  method  of  colonial  control,  405 

,  sea  i)ower  of,  395 

,  water  barriers  of,  112  f 

CJrcat  War,  and  Bagdad  railway,  W-i 

,  British  energy  in,  39() 

,  causes  of,  Balkan  situation,  380 

, ,  Germany's  frontier,  389 

, ,  sea  power,  382 

,  countries  engaged  in,  349 

,  effect  of  boundaries  on,  389 

,  influenza  ei)idemic  in,  362 


Great  War,  mountain  influence  on,  388 

,  use  of  copper,  183 

, iron,  179 

, potatoes,  336 

, wheat,  358 

Grape,  pests  destroying,  361 
Grasses,  268 
— ,  Arctic,  275 

—  in  desert,  273,  312 

tropical  lands,  282 

— ,  Philippine  "cogon,"  282 
Grasslands,    effect   on   distribution   of 

horses,  343 

—  in  cyclonic  regions,  331 
— ,  influence  on  Khirghiz,  14 
— ,  man's  resi)onse  to,  15 

■ — ,  the  savannas,  271 

—  in  tropical  lands,  271,  272 
Gravel  deserts,  312 
Gravelly  soils,  155 
(Jreece,  art  of,  11 

■ — ,  lack  of  iron  in,  177 
"Green  England,"  384 
Greenland,  vegetation  of,  5 
Greenwich  Observatory,  24 

—  time,  26,  31 
Gregorian  calendar,  25 

Guam,  acquisition  by  United  States, 

399 
Guano,  source  of  phosphates,  163 
Guatemala,  climatic  cycles,  371 
— ,  health  in,  277 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  61 

—  Stream,  61,  230 
Gunnison  \'alle}',  322 
Gusher  oil,  196 

H 

Haiti,  American  protectorate,  399 
Hankow,  Yangste  river  at,  138 
Harbors    and    iiihiiHl    cuniniunicalion, 

117  f. 
— ,  depth  of,  11  r,  IT. 

—  improved  Ijy  tides,  36 

—  protection  of,  115 
■ — ,  role  of,  115 

Harbor  trade,   determined  by  hinter- 
land, 120 
Hawaiian  Islands,  expansiiMi  of  U.  S. 

to,  399 
,  sugar  in,  289 


INDEX 


419 


Hay,  325 

Health  and  climate,  209  f.,  24S  fY. 

energy,  measurement  of,  248 

— ,  relation  to  efficiency,  9 

— ,  effect  of  tropical  seacoast  on,  lOG 
— , inland  waters  on, 

—  in  Europe,  250 

India,  monsoon  effect  on,  238 

rain  forest,  277 

tropical  plantations,  290 

U.  S.,  249 

— ,  measurement  of,  248  f . 

Hero  of  Alexandria,   steam  engine  of, 

178 
Hides,  distribution  of,  342 
Highway  construction,  cost  of,  114 
Himalayas,  climate  of,  205 
— ,  effect  on  climate  of  India,  239 

— , rainfall,  241 

— ,  fields  in,  90 

Hindu  clothing,  7 

Hinterland,  effect  on  commerce,  135 

— , trade  of  harbor,  120 

Holland,  occupations  in,  8 
Horses,  distribution  of,  343  ] 
Houses  of  snow,  317 
Human  energy,  see  Energy 

—  habits,  effect  of  daylight  on,  38 

—  geography,  elements  of,  1,  2 

—  progress,  influence  of  copper  on,  181 
Humidity,  optimum,  251 

Humus  in  loam,  156 
Hurricanes  and  cyclones,  216 
Hydraulic  mining,  171 


Ichang,  Yangste  River  at,  138 
Idaho,  water  power  in,  144 
Immigration  in  East  and  West,  377 

South  Atlantic  States,  306 

Imperalor  in  New  York  harbor,  11  ( > 

Imperial  Yalley,  320 

Imports,  study  of,  349 

India,  British  rule  in,  381,  393 

— ,  cattle  in,  48,  340 

— ,  famine  in,  298 

— ,  irrigation  in,  317,  322,  327,  329 

— ,  land  route  to,  393 

— ,  material  needs  of,  7 

— ,  monsoons  in,  235  f. 

— ,  rainfall  in,  238 


India,  religion  In,  11 

Indian  Ocean,  currents  in,  234 

Indians,  origin  of  American,  85 

Indigo,  288 

Indo-China,  French  e^xpansion  to,  400 

Europeans,  migration  of,  58 

Influenza,  spread  of,  3(52 

Inland    conuuunication    antl    harbors, 

117  f. 
Inland  waters,  128  ff . 

■ as  aids  to  health,  128 

,  barriers,  129  f . 

,  —  regulators  of  temperature,  128 

,  sources  of  food,  129 

• ,  —  —  minerals,  129 

• —  waterways,    carriers    of    commerce, 

133  f. 

,  depth  and  breadth,  133 

,  direction  of,  135 

of  central  Europe  (map),  137 

Insect  pests,  in  tropics,  277  f.,  283 
International  date  line,  29 

—  relations,  392  ff. 
Inventions  in  cyclonic  regions,  347 
Iowa,  population  of,  82 

— ,  vegetation  of,  5 

Iquassu  River,  Victoria  Falls  on,  149 

Iron,  abundance  of,  169 

—  Age,  176 

—  and  British  expansion,  395 
early  civilization,  177  f. 

—  distribution  of,  341 

—  in  Russia,  397 

— ,  remarkable  natiu'e  of,  176 

—  works  at  Dannemora,  188 
Ireland,  potato  crop,  336,  366 
— ,  rainfall  and  migration,  36() 
Irrigated  lands,  special  advantages  of, 

325 
Irrigation,  319  ff. 
— ,  chief  crops,  325 
— ,  effect  of  mountains  on,  321 
— ,  —  on  character,  328 

• — , on  jjopulation,  326 

— ,  from  Periyar  River,  319 

—  in  China,  327 

Egypt,  317 

India,  317 

U.  S,  320  f. 

— ,  influence  on  civilization,  327 

— ,  methotls  of  raising  water  for,  322 


•}2() 


INDEX 


irrinatioii,    iirovontion    of    fainiiio   hv, 

:i27 

Issik  Kill  fresh  hxko,  13 
••Italia  Irredenta,  "  407 
Italy,  fishinn  iiulustry  in,  111 
— ,  cxiiansion  of,  407 
— ,  irrigation  in,  32'2 

J 

.laiian  and  Chinese  coal  mines,  201 

—  —  Port  Arthur,  381 
sea  jiower,  382 

the  Chinese  i)r()l)leni,  401 

— ,  art  of,  11 

— ,  climate  of,  2r>4 

— ,  copper  in,  183 

— ,  exjiansion  of,  400  f. 

— ,  fisheries  of,  108,  109 

— ,  trade  with  China,  401 

— ,  use  of  terraces  in  farminfj;,  90 

— ,  water  barriers  of,  113 

.Tava,  plantations  of,  291 

Judaism,  influence  of  sheep  raising?  on, 

11 
Julian  calendar,  25 
Jungle,  apiiearance  of,  280 

—  life  in,  280  IT. 

— ,  primitive  agriculture  in,  281 
— ,  tropical,  271 

K 

Kansas,  rain  in,  235,  3G4 

— ,  settlement  of,  364 

Kentucky,  87 

Khirghiz,  art  of,  21 

— ,  cattle  herding,  19 

— ,  character  of,  20 

— ,  clothing  of,  16 

— ,  diet  of,  15 

— ,  education  among,  21 

— ,  fuel  used  hy,  16 

— ,  geographical  surroimdings,  12 

— ,  government  of,  20 

— ,  homes  of,  Ki 

— ,  manufacturing  and  commerce  of,  19 

— ,  migration  of,  is 

— ,  nomads  of  Central  Asia,  12 

— ,  recreations  of,  20 

— ,  religion  of,  20 

— ,  scientific  development  among,  21 

— ,  tools  of,  16 


Klondike,  gold  in,  170 
Kurds  in  Turkey,  92 


Labrador  current,  elTect  on  climate,  232 

— ,  fisheries  of,  109 

— ,  occupation  in,  8 

Tiake  Erie,  effect  on  fruit,  128 

,  glaciation     cause     of     Niagara 

water  power,  147 

—  Michigan,  as  water  barrier,  131 
,  effect  on  fruit,  128 

, rainfall,  128 

—  Superior  district,  iron  and  copi)er  in, 

168,  169 

Lakes,  desert,  cause  of  salt  in,  i^ll 

— ,  development  of  water  power,  144 

— ,  glacial,  148 

Land  connection  of  South  America,  58 

Africa,  58 

— ,  continuity  of,  55 

— ,  effect  on  climate,  2'23  ff. 

• —  forms,  51 

among  the  Khirghiz,  12,  13 

as  geographic  constant,  359 

in  human  geograi)hy,  2 

Lands,  irrigated,  value  of,  325 

Lapps,  modes  of  life,  316 

Latin  America,  self  government  in,  387 

Labrador  cm-rent,  effect  on  New  Eng- 
land climate,  232 

Latitude  at  sea,  30 

— ,  effect  on  fisheries,  110 

— ,  effect  on  health,  249 

— ,  how  determined,  23 

League  of  Nations,  assembly,  406 

in  relation  to  boundaries,  390 

Germany,  403 

— mineral     products, 

395 

-,  influence  on  colonial  control, 

407 

,  problems  of,  '201 

Legumes,  food  value  of,  356 

— ,  source  of  nitrogen,  164 

Liberia,  health  in,  '277 

— ,  insect  pests  in,  277 

Libyan  oasis,  population  in,  326 

Life  in  subtropical  and  monsoon  re- 
gions, 293  ff. 

tropical  jungle,  2S0  f. 


INDEX 


421 


l-illers,  France,  artesian  well  at,  142 

Lime,  sources  of,  163 

Limestone,  107 

Liverpool  harlior,  3G 

Living,  cost  of,  174 

Llanos  of  Venezuela,  272 

Loam  soil,  156 

Lobsters,  108 

Local  time,  26 

Location  as  geographic  constant,  359 

— ,  determination  of,  23,  29 

— ,  effect  on  Khirghiz,  12 

—  in  human  geography,  2 

—  of  Asia,  62 

Great  Britain,  394 

North  America,  66 

—  —  Russia,  396 

— ,  political  effect  on  Belgium,  378 
Locomotives,  cost  of,  115 
Locusts,  migrations  of,  360 
Loess,  formation  of,  311 

—  in  China,  311 

Lofoten  Islands,  marine  climate  of,  224 
Longitude,  23 

—  at  sea,  31 

London,  artesian  wells  in,  143 
— ,  water  barriers  of,  131 
Los  Angeles  aqueduct,  369 

water  system,  143 

Louisiana,  French  emigration  to,  400 
— ,  purchase  of,  398 
Louisville,  Ky.,  artesian  well  at,  142 
Lubricant,  petroleum  as  a,  197 
Lumber  in  United  States,  92 
Lumbering  as  mountain  industry,  92 
— ,  wasteful  methods  in,  93 
Lusitania,  25 

M 

Machinery,  high  sjjced,  197 

—  on  farms,  303 
MacKenzie  River,  flow  of,  135 
Magellan,  28 

Maine  as  pleasure  resort,  105 

— ,  submerged  coast  of,  105 

Man  and  vegetation  in  tropics,  277  f. 

—  as  source  of  power,  186 

— ,  changing  surroundings  of,  369  ff. 
— ,  effect  of  climate  on  health,  2  IS 

— , work,  254  f.,  330,  371 

— , climatic  cycles  on,  371  ff. 


Man,  effect  of  cyclonic  storms  on,  330  f. 

— , petroleum  on,  199 

■ — ,  efficiency  and  energy  of,  6,  11 
• — ,  environment  of,  15 
— ,  food  of,  7 

— ,  health  and  energy  of,  248  ff. 
— ,  higher  needs  of,  6,  9 
— ,  inheritance,  6 
— ,  isolation  of,  10 
— ,  material  needs  of,  6,  7 
— ,  mental  and  physical  activity  of,  250 
— ,  migration  from  Asia  to  North  Amer- 
ica, 55 
■ — ;  occupations,  6 
— ,  poverty  or  prosperity  of,  10 
- — ,  white,  in  rain  forest,  279 
— ,  work  of,  see  Work 
Manufacturing  among  Khirghiz,  19 

—  in  Aleppo,  295 

—  location,  344 

Manilla  hemj)  plantations,  2SS 

JNIaj)  projections,  46 

Maps,  conical,  46 

— ,  determined  by  form  and  motions  of 

earth,  43 
— ,  homalographic,  46 
— ,  importance  of,  44 
- — ,  Mercator,  46 
— ,  stereographic  projections,  46 
— ,  uses  of,  44,  45 

Marine,   climate,   of   Lofoten    Islands, 
224 

—  versus  continental  climates,  224  ff. 
— -  vegetation,  107 

Markets  in  cy(;lonic  regions,  346 
Maya  ruins  of  Guatemala,  371 
Mechanical  agents  in  formation  of  soil, 

153 
Mediterranean  break,  60 

—  regions,  299  f. 

- —  — ,  trees  in,  91 

—  Sea,  salt  in,  107 
Mcmi)his,  bridge  at,  130 
Mental  activity,  2.")0 
,  see  also  Energy- 

Merida,  Yucatan,  wiiulinills  in,  187 

Meridian  day,  29 

Mesopotamia,  inlluence  of  KnglanJ  in, 

393 
— , lack  of  iron,  177 
— ,  population  in,  326 


422 


iM)i;x 


Motiils,  aniounl  and  (list rihut ion  of, 
170,  :}41 

— ,  and  fivilizniion,  Id?  (T. 

— ,  jirccious,  170  IT. 

Mexico,  occui)ations  in,  8 

— ,  pctrolomn  in,  200 

— ,  wells  in,  141 

Miami  Hivcr,  gravel  on  soil  from,  lo") 

Mirliigan,  copper  ore  in,  181 

— ,  mineral  wealth  of,  4 

— ,  Lake,  sec  Lake  Michigan 

Microscopic  creature;.,  a  geogra])lii(^ 
variable,  303 

Migration,  from  Asia  to  Nortli  Amer- 
ica, 55 

— ,  Europe,  365 

— ,  Ireland,  366 

—  of  animals  and  plants,  360  fT. 

Indo-Europeans,  58 

negroid  races,  58 

Semites,  58 

the  Khirghiz,  IS 

Minerals,  al)un(lant  in  mountains, 
107  iT. 

—  and  politics,  383 

— ,  conservation  of,  185 

—  from  inland  waters,  129 
salt  lakes,  129 

—  in  human  geography,  4 

—  in  oceans,  106 

— ,  influence  on  Khirghiz,  14 

Mines,  government  ownershij)  of,  383 

Mining  booms,  109 

—  camps  in  West,  169 
— ,  hydraulic,  170 

— ,  industries,  staging  of,  108  f. 

— ,  permanent,  169 

— ,  ])lacer,  170 

Minucsala  (ship),  120 

Mississippi,  minerals  in,  107 

— ,  soil  of,  4 

Mis.sissii)pi  Riveras  awater  barrier,  130 

,  relief  affecting  power  of,  114 

,  winding  course  of,  134 

watenvay,  138  f. 

Modes  of  life  in  deserts,  309  ff,.  314 

polar  regions,  309  ff. 

Mohave  desert,  313 

Moisture,  inland  waters  as  source  of, 

12S 
^Ionadnock  type  of  mountain,  80 


Monroe  Doctrine  and  geography,  386 

influence    on   German  exjjansion 

inS.  A.,  402 
Moon  as  cause  of  tides,  33 

—  as  measure  of  time,  25 
Moonshiner,  87 

Monsoon  regions,  diet  of,  356 

,  life  in,  293  ff. 

,  location  of,  293 

in  America,  304  ff. 

Monsoons,    effect    on    prosperity    and 
health,  238 

—  in  Asia,  cau.se  of,  235 
■ India,  235  f . 

— ,  seasonal  contrasts  of,  235  ff. 
Montana,  copper  in,  181 
— ,  minerals  in,  107 
Moths,  migrations  of,  361 
Moimtain  building,  55 

—  industries,  cattle  raising,  91 

,  lumVicring,  92 

Mountaineers,  boldness  of,  97 
— ,  idleness  among,  95 

— ,  professions  among,  96 
Mountains,  age  of,  80 
— ,  Appalachian,  379 

—  as  a  pleasure  ground,  98 

• —  as  political  boundaries,  387 

— ,  cattle  raising  among,  91 

— ,  civilization  among,  78,  95 

— ,  climate  as  barrier  of,  205 

— ,  contrast  between  plains  and,  81 

— ,  distribution  of  jiopulation  among, 

82 
— ,  effect  on  irrigation  of,  321 
— ,  fueds  in,  97 
— ,  formation  of,  79 
— ,  minerals  in,  107  f. 
— ,  scenery  in,  98 
— ,  transportation  in,  85,  87 
— ,  tree  croj)s  among,  91 
— ,  tyjjcs  of,  79 
— ,  vegetation  in,  208 
Mud  in  water  supply,  140 

N 
Nai)o]('on,  effect  of  ocean  l)arriers  on 

career  of,  112 
Nations,  ex-pansion  of,  392  ff. 
Natives  in  eciuatorial  rain  forest,  279 
Natural  gas,  195  f. 


INDEX 


423 


Navigation,  30 

Newfouiulhuul  Hanks,  fishing  on.  111 

—  compared  with  Tasmania,  407 

—  fisheries,  109,  li&d 

Negro  shivery  and  climate,  384 

Negroid  ra(!cs,  migration  of,  58 

Nevada,  acquisition  by  U.  S.,  398 

— ,  gold  and  silver  in,  171 

— ,  irrigation  in,  321 

— ,  water  power  of,  144 

New  England,  effect  of  Labrador  cm-- 
rent  on  climate,  232 

,  glacial  lakes,  falls  and  rapids,  148 

,  glaciated     regions,     sources     of 

water  power,  147 

New  Guinea,  lack  of  cattle  in,  2 

,  water  barriers  in,  112 

New  Jersey,  progress  of,  1 

,  transportation  in,  85 

New  Mexico,  acquisition  by  U.  S.,  398 

New  Orleans,  ferry,  transportation  at, 
130 

,  location  of,  44 

New  World,  isolation  of,  386 

,  expense  of  water  communica- 
tion, 132 

New  York  City,  heat  in,  105 

,  water  system,  143 

,  harbor,  36,  117 

New  Zealand,  climate  of,  255 

,  time  at,  29 

Niagara  Falls,  aluminum  plants  at,  183 

as  source  of  water  power,  147 

,  effect  of  Great  I^akes  on,  144 

Niagara  water  power,  for  manufacture 
of  nitrogen,  165 

Nicaragua,  American  protectorate,  399 

Nile  River  as  a  barrier,  131 

,  influence  on  religion  of  Egj'])t, 

11 

■ as  source  of  irrigation,  319 

Nitrification,  artificial  bacteria  for,  1()5 

Nitrogen,  sources  of,  164 

Nomadic  Khirghiz,  character  of,  12 

Nomadic  mode  of  life,  314 

Nomadism  of  grasslands,  15 

Nomads,  government  of,  316 

North  America,  location,  66 

,  railroads  of,  69 

,  shape  and  relation  to  sea,  68 

= ,  size  and  relief,  66 


North  America,  subtropical  regions  of, 
300  f. 

North  Atlantic  break,  effect  on  cli- 
mate, 61 

North  Sea  fishing  grounds,  109 

Norway,  commerce  of.  111 

— ,  fisheries  of,  108  f. 

— ,  glacial  regions  and  water  power, 
148 

— ,  length  of  day  and  night,  38 

— ,  nitrogen  fertilizer  in,  165 

— ,  unfortified  boundary  of,  389 


Oases,  313 

Oats,  337 

Ob  River,  flow  of,  135 

Occupations,  influence  of  geographical 

surroundings  on,  7 
Ocean  currents,  caused  by  winds,  230 

,  cold,  61 

Ocean  transportation,  low  cost  of,  113 

Oceanic  whirls,  234  f. 

Oceans  and  civilization,  124  ff. 

— ,  arrangement  of,  51 

—  as  aid  to  health,  104 
barriers.  111 

commerce  carriers,  113 

— ,  regulators  of  temperature,  104 

— ,  sewers,  106 

— ,  source  of  food,  107 

— , rain  water,  103 

— ,  a  storehouse  for  limestone,  107 

— , minerals,  106  f . 

— , potash  and  phosphorus,  107 

— , salt,  106 

— ,  climate  on,  205,  223  f . 

■ — ,  effect  on  clouds  and  rain,  103 

— , political  relations,  380  f. 

— , pressure,  227 

— ,  influence  of,  103  f. 

— , ,  on  temperature,  223 

Ohio,  soil  of,  4 
Ontario,  climate  of,  257 
Optimum  humidity,  251 

—  temperature,  251 

—  variability,  252 

Orange  River,  navigable  length  of,  134 
Oregon,  water  power  of,  144 
Organic  agents  in  formation  of  soil,  155 
Outdoor  life,  benefit  of,  252 


424 


INDEX 


Owens  Lako,  Calif .  360 
Oysters,  lOS 


Pacifir,  currents  of,  234 

Pack  animals,  87 

Palestine,  climatic  cycles  in,  375 

— ,  influence  of  England  in,  393 

— ,  lack  of  iron  in,  177 

— ,  occujjations  in,  11 

Palmyra,  elTect  of  climate  on,  3GS 

Panijjas,  of  Argentina,  272 

Panama  Canal,  military  aspects  of,  G2 

—  —  tonnage,  7G 

Zone,  annexation  by  U.  S.,  399 

— ,  Hei)ul)lic  of,  Aiiicrican  i)rot('i'tonite, 

399 
Papuans,  characteristics  of,  1 
Paris,  water  barriers  of,  131 
Peat,  world's  supply  of,  192 
Peccaries,  338 
Peneplain,  80 
Pennsylvania,  occupations  in,  8 

—  Railroad,  85 
Perihelion,  43 

Periyar  River,  irrigation  from,  319 
Persia,  raids  in,  97 
Peru,  claim  on  Atacama  Desert,  165 
— ,  climate  of,  4 
Petroleum,  195  fT. 
— ,  conservation  of,  197 
— ,  distribution  of  (map),  198 
— ,  effect  on  man,  199 
— ,  England's  need  of,  395 
— ,  in  Mexico,  196,  200 
— ,  —  plain.s,  168 
— ,  —  Texas, 
— ,  political  effect  of,  200 
— ,  production  of,  197  f. 
— ,  uses  of,  19() 

Philadclpliia,  cost  of  labor  in,  116 
Philippines  acfiuircd  by  V .  S.,  399 
— ,  American  method  of  colonial  con- 
trol in,  406 
— ,  "cogon"  gra.ss  in,  282 
— ,  food  of,  7 

Phosphates,  sources  of,  163 
Phosphorus  in  ocean,  107 
Phylloxera,  migrations  of,  301 
Physical  activity,  150 

—  energy,  ate  Energy 


Pig  iron,  production  in  U.  S.,  177 

Pigs,  domestic  and  wild,  33S  f. 

"  I'iiie  barrens"  of  Carolina,  Georgia 

and  Florida,  155 
Pittslnirgh,  water  supply  of,  143 
Placer  mining,  170 
Placers,  gold  in,  170 
Plains  and  mountains  contrasted,  81 
— ,  cereal  crops  of,  91 
— ,  civilization  on,  78 
— ,  distribution  of  population  on,  82 
— ,  formation  of,  80 
— ,  transportation  over,  85 
Plant  growth,  need  of  chemicals  for,  160 
Plantation,  agriculture  in  tropics,  287  ff. 
Plantations,  effect  on  civilization,  290 
— ,  health  on,  290 

—  of  Java,  291 

Plants,  as  feature  of  physical  en\-iron- 

ment,  5 
— ,  imi)ortance  of,  2(53  ff. 
— ,  migration  of,  55 
Poland,  boundaries  of,  390 
J'lateaus,  character  of,  80 
Polar  areas  of  low  pressure,  213 

—  bears,  316 
— •  deserts,  275 

—  precipitation,  221 

—  projection,  48 

—  regions,  climate  as  barrier  in,  206 
,  diet  in,  354 

,  mode  of  life  in  309,  f. 

,  rainfall  in,  217,  221 

Poles,  migrations  to  Germany,  390 
Political  agitation,   causes  in   France, 
361 

—  boundaries  and  commerce,  388 
,  mountains  as,  387 

—  geography,  377  ff. 

Poor  relief  in  Xewfovmdland,  3(53 
Population  among  niouiit.iins,  82 
— ,  density  of,  10 

■ — , ,  influence  of  climate  on,  243 

— , ,  in  cyclonic  regions,  344 

— , ,  —  plains,  84 

— , ,  —  seaports,  122  f. 

— , ,  —  Shantung,  296 

— , ,  —  U.  S.,  48 

— ,  distribution  of,  82 

—  in  desert,  309 

irrigated  areas,  326  f. 


INDEX 


425 


Population  in  monsoon  regions,  305 

plains,  82 

—  of  China,  29(5 

Egypt,  32G 

Florida,  306 

Iowa,  82 

Scotland,  84 

Switzerland,  82 

— ,  sparsity  of,  82,  306 
— ,  "standard,"  348 
Port  Arthur,  381 
"Pork-barrel  bill,"  378 

Porto  Rico,  acquisition  by  U.  S.,  399 
,  American  method  of  colonial  con- 
trol in,  406 
Portuguese  East  Africa,  insect  pests  in, 

6 
Potato  crop  in  Germany,  339 

Ireland,  36G 

Potatoes,  distribution  of,  335,  f . 

Potash  in  oceans,  107 

— ,  sources  of,  164 

Potomac,  water  power  of,  144 

Poverty,  in  relation  to  soil,  156  f. 

Power,  kinds  of,  186  f. 

—  on  waterways,  114 

—  resources  of  U.  S.,  202 
— ,  sources  of,  186  f. 

— , ,  coal,  189 

— , ,  in  the  future,  202 

— ,  — ,  — ,  sun,  202 

— , ,  water,  143  f . 

— , ,  wind,  187  f. 

— , ,  wood,  188 

— ,  waste  of,  193 
— ,  water,  see  Water  power 
Prairie,  274 

Pressure  and  relief,  239 
— ,  ctTect  of  continents  and  oceans  on, 
227 

— , relief  on  atmospheric,  239 

— rotation    on    distribution    of, 

211 
Pressure  l)elts  on  a    simplified    );i(>i)(', 

212  ff. 
Products,  tropical,  2S7 
— ,  world's  chief,  332 
Prospecting  for  minerals,  168 
Prosperity,  effect  of  monsoons  on,  238 

—  in  relation  to  rich  soil,  156  f. 
Proteids,  350 


Protozoa,    effect    on    man's    environ- 
ment, 363 
Pygmies,  occupation  of,  8 
Pyrenees  as  political  boundary,  387 

Q 

Quinine  plantations,  288 

Quintana  Roo,  transportation  in,  278 

R 

Rabbits  in  Australia,  60 
Races  of  man,  6 
Railroads,  distribution  of,  344 
— ,  north  and  south,  74 

—  of  North  America,  69 

the  continents,  69 

Rain,  effect  of  altitude  on,  82 
— ,  source  of,  103 

— ,  summer,    in    continental    interiors, 

235 
— ,  winter,  in  subtropical  regions,  297 

—  forest,  271,  277  ff. 

—  — ,  diet  in,  355 

,  health  in,  277 

-,  inhabitants  of,  279 

Rainfall  and  migration  from  Europe, 
365 

Ireland,  366 

water  power,  144 

cycles,  effect  of  in  America,  367 

lakes  on,  128 

oceans  on,  77 

relief  on,  240  ff. 

—  on  Caspian  Sea,  369 

deserts,  310 

ruins,  368 

—  salt  lakes,  369 

—  in  desert  belt,  220,  310 

equatorial  belt,  215 

India,  238 

Kansas,  235,  364 

Polar  regions,  217,  221 

sub-equatorial  regions,  220 

subtropical  belts,  216,  220,  297 

temperate  regions,  221 

trade  wind  belts,  215 

westerly  wind  belts,  216 

western  I'nited  States,  240 

— ,  seasonal,  and  famines,  298 
— ,  subtropical  vs.  monsoon,  297 
— ,  variations  in,  3t>S  IT. 


426 


INDEX 


Rainfall  zones  on  rotfttlnp;  globe,  214 
Itain-Hluiilow,  241 

Rapids  as  source  of  water  power,  147 
Relief  and  atniosphoric  jircssure,  239 

—  efTect  on  Halkans,  379 
cliniato,  23S  fT. 

—  political  allegiance,  379 

rainfall  240  f. 

temperature,  238 

winds,  239 

— ,  favorable  to  water  power,  144 
— ,  importance  of,  82  fT. 

—  in  California,  effect  on  orange  grow- 

ing, 240 

Europe,  64 

North  America,  66 

southern  continents,  68 

Religion  elTect  of  surroundings  on,  11 

—  of  Khirghiz,  21 
Reservoirs,  322 
Residual  mountains,  80 
Revolution  of  earth,  around  the  sun,  ;U) 

,  effect  on  climatic  belts,  217 

Rhine  as  boundary,  389 

— ,  flow  of,  135 

— ,  waterway  of,  136 

Rice,  326 

Rice  farming,  effect  on  civilization,  284 

in  Ceylon,  283  f. 

Rio  Grande  as  boundary,  388 

,  depth  of,  133 

Rivers  in  human  geography,  13 

—  volume  affected  by  vegetation,  111 
Riviera,  effect  of  relief  on,  239 
"Roaring  forties"  (westerlies),  234 
Rocky  mountains  as  mining  regions, 

167 
Rome,  barbarian  invasions  of,  374 
— ,  effect  of  climatic  cycles  on,  371  f. 
— ,  lack  of  iron,  177 
Roosevelt  Dam,  320 
Rotation,  effect  on  pressure,  211 

— , temperature,  211 

— , winds,  213 

liubber  in  cyclonic  regions,  343 

—  I)lantations,  2S7 
Ruins  and  rainfall,  3()8 
Russia,  calendar  of,  26 
— ,  climate  of,  5,  397 
— ,  coal  and  iron  in,  397 

— ,  dLsadvantages  of  location,  396 


Russia,  expansion  of,  396 

— ,  food  and  raw  material  of,  397 

— ,  form  of  land,  396 

— ,  inland  waters  of,  397 

— ,  monotony  of,  397 

— ,  ocean  frontage  of,  61,  380  ff.,  397 

— ,  rivalry  with  luigland,  381 

— ,  wood  as  fuel  in,  189 

Rye,  337 


St.  Louis,  bridge  at,  130 

,  channel  of  Missis.sii)])i  at,  138 

St.  Lawrence  River,  waterway  of,  135  f . 
Sacramento  county,  poi)ula1i(>n  of.  84 
Sahara  Desert,  artesian  wells  in,  ]  12 
Salmon  in  Pacific  Ocean,  109 
Salt,  desert  lakes,  311 

—  in  oceans,  106 

—  lakes  and  rainfall,  369 

,  source  of  minerals,   129 

Samoa,  expansion  of  U.  S.  to,  399 
Sand,  soil,  155 

Sandy  deserts,  310 

Santo  Domingo,  American  protectorate, 

399 
Savoy,  aluminum  factories  in,  183 
Savannas,  272  ff. 
— ,  animals  of,  272 
Scales,  migrations  of,  361 
Schaffhausen,    aluminum     plants    at, 

183 
Scotch,  characteristics,  1 
Scotland,  population  of,  10,  84 
Scrub  and  buslu's,  265  f. 
— ,  tropical  271 
Sea,  effect  on  climate,  223  ff. 

—  coast,  effect  on  health,  104  f. 
in  tropics,  106 

—  floor,     government     jjrutection     of, 

108 
Seamanship,  fi.sheries  as  sclu^il  of,  1 1 1  f . 
Si;i|)()rts,  growth  of,  122 
— ,  population  in,  122  f. 
Searies  Lake,  Calif.,  source  of  potash, 

164 
Sea.sonal  changes  of  rivers,  134 

—  contrasts,    cause    of    nioii.soons    in 

A.sia.  235 

—  variations,  effect   on  water   jjower, 

147 


INDEX 


427 


Seasons,  causes  of,  36,  41  ff. 
— ,  effect  on  civilization,  43 
— , health  and  energy,  248  f . 

—  in  desert  belt,  220 
temperate  regions,  221 

—  of  rainfall  in  equatorial  regions,  218 
— ,  variation  in  effect  of,  249 

— ,  wet  and  dry,  in  equatorial  regions, 
218 

— , ,  —  sub-equatorial  regions, 

220 

— , ,  —  sul:)tropical    regions, 

220 
Seattle,  climate  of,  104 
— ,  expense  of  harbor  at,  117 
Seeds,  effect  of  daylight  on,  38 
Seine  River,  a  barrier,  131 
Seistan,  377 
Self-government,    method    of    colonial 

control,  405 
Semites,  migration  of,  58 
Serbia,  acorns  as  food  in,  92 
— ,  German  aggressions  in,  403 
Sewage,  disposal  in  oceans,  106 
Shape  and  relation  to  sea,  of  Europe,  66 

,  —  North  America,  08 

,  —  South  America,  69 

,  —  southern  continents, 

69 
Shantung,  journey  to,  296 
Sheep  in  California,  91 
Ships,  cost  of,  115 
— ,  decline  in  sailing,  187 
— ,  need  of  men  on,  114 
Siam,  energy  of,  12 
Siberia,  effect  of  long  days  on,  38 
— ,  inland  water  transportation,  397 
— ,  Russians  of,  12 
— ,  seasonal  changes  of  rivers,  135 
— ,  wood  as  fuel  in,  189 
Sierras  as  tourist  resort,  98 
— ,  cattle  raising  among,  91 
Sierra  Nevadas  as  mining  regions,  1()7 

,  vegetation  of,  268 

Silver,  economic  importance  of,  174,  f. 
Size  of  Europe,  64 

North  America,  66 

Sky-scrapers,  result  of  water  barri(Ms, 

132 
Soil  and  the  farmer,  153  ff. 
— ,  changes  in,  359 


Soil,  exhaustion  of,  282,  359 

—  improved  by  glaciers,  157 

—  in  human  geograjihy,  4 
mountains,  90 

relation    to    poverty   and   pros- 
perity, 156  f. 
— ,  —  tropical  lands,  282 
— ,  influence  of  climate  on,  158  f. 

—  —  on  Khirghiz,   14 
— ,  kinds  of,  155  ff. 

• — ■  of  Alabama  and  Georgia,  156 

South  Atlantic  States,  306 

— ,  residual,  157 

— ,  transported,  157 

"Solid  South,"  385 

South  Africa,  effect  of  British  expan- 
sion on,  394 

,  gold  in,  176 

Soutli  America,  cattle  in,  340 

,  influence   of   Monroe   Doctrine, 

402 

,  land  connection  of,  58 

—  — ,  railroads  in,  73 

,  self-government  in,  387 

,  shape  and  relation  to  sea,  69 

South  Atlantic  States,  mon.soon  cli- 
mate of,  306  f. 

Southern  continents,  area  of,  68 

■ — ■  — ,  climate  of,  68 

,  relief  of,  68 

,  shape  and  relation  to  sea,  69 

Southern  States  (of  U.  S.)  climate  of, 
384 

Spain  and  mountain  carriers,  387 

— ,  chestnut  orchards  of,  92 

— ,  colonial  methods  of,  404 

— ,  effect  of  little  coal  on,  179 

— ,  population  in  irrigated  areas,  326 

Species,  origin  of,  58 

Spitzbergen,  occupations  in,  8 

Standard  Oil  Company,  201 

—  time,  26 
Standards  of  time,  25 
Steel  Age,  177 

— ,  use  of  charcoal  in  smelting,  188 

Steppe,  274 

Stone  Age,  177 

Strassfurt,   Prussia,  source  of  potash, 

164 
Submerged  coasts  and  fisheries,  110 
of  Maine,  recreation  on,  105 


428 


INDEX 


SulvK'qujitorial  ropinns,  rainfall  in,  220 
iSubtropiail  belt  of  high  pressure,  212  f. 

—  dry  forest,  274 

—  farming  in  California,  302  f. 

—  regions,  diet  of,  356 

,  famines  in,  350 

,  life  in,  293  IT. 

,  loeation  of,  293 

of  Mediterranean,  299  f . 

North  America,  300  f. 

.rainfall  in,  210,  220 

,  winter  rain  and  summer  drought, 

297 

—  seasons,  220 

Suez  Canal,  tonnage  of,  76 

,  military  importance  of,  02 

Sugar  plantations,  2SS  f. 

—  raising  in  Hritish  Guiana,  Cuba  and 

Hawaii,  289 

—  tropical  versus  temperate,  288 
Sulphurous   smoke   in   copper   mining 

regions,  183 
Summer,  causes  of,  41 
Sun  as  cause  of  tides,  34 
Swamps  as  source  of  bog  iron,  129 
Sweden,  effect  of  little  coal  on,  179 
— ,  occupations  in,  8 
— ,  unfortified  boundary  of,  389 
Swine,  sec  Pigs 

Switzerland,  cattle  raising  in,  91 
— ,  population  of,  82 
— ,  water  power  of,  148 
— ,   woodworking  and   embroidery   in, 

90 
Syria,  climatic  cj'cles  in,  375 
Syrian  desert,  mode  of  life  in,  311 

T 

Takla  Makan  desert,  loess  in,  311 
Tamarisk  in  deserts,  312 
Tainpico  oil  field,  190,  200 
"Tanks,"  use  in  Indian  irrigation,  319, 

322 
Tariff  question  in  United  States,  3S5 

in  England,  383 

Tasmania    c<)iiii);irc(l   with    Ncwfoiiii(l- 

land,  407 
Tea  plantations,  287 
Tennessee,    effect    of   moiuitain    trans- 

IM)rtation,  87 
Tehuantepec,  isthmus  of,  278 


Temperate  regions,  seasons  of,  221 

Temperature  contrasts  in  California,  223 

— ,  effect  of  rotation  on.  -'1 1 

— ,  influence  of  altitude  on,  82 

— , continents  on,  223 

— , inland  waters  on,  128 

— , oceans  on,  77,  104,  223 

— , relief  on,  238 

— ,  optimum,  251 

Tent,  Indian,  52 

• — ,  Khirghiz,  10 

Terraces,  use  in  farming,  90 

Tetrahedron,  shape  of  earth  compared, 
with,  51  f. 

Texas,  acquisition  oy  U.  S.,  398 

— ,  minerals  in,  107 

Thames  River,  a  barrier,  131 

Thunder  stormsand  cyclonic  storms,  216 

Tian  Shan  i)lateau,  12 

Tibet,  gold  in,  170 

Tides,  effect  of,  32  f . 

— , ,  on  harbors,  30 

— ,  influence  of  moon  on,  33 

— , sun  on,  34 

— ,  nature  of,  32 

— ,  neap,  35 

■ — ,  sjmng,  35 

Timber  belt  in  Alabama  and  Georgia, 
150 

Time,  central,  20 

— ,  change  of,  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica, 20 

— ,  determination  of,  25 

— ,  eastern,  20 

■ — ,  local  and  standard,  20 

— ,  mountain,  20 

— ,  Pacific,  20 

Tin,  production  of,  311 

Tit(nnc,  sunk  as  result  of  fog,  232 

Tobacco,  effect  of  long  daj's  on  seeds  of, 
38 

—  in  Southern  States,  384 
Tornadoes  and  cyclones,  210 
Trade  and  friendly  relations,  401 

—  in  Aiepix),  295 

Trade  wind  belts,  rainfall  in,  215 
Trades  (Trade  winds),  214 
'I'ranscaspian  desert,  vegetation  in,  312 
Transportation,  by  pack  animals.  87 
— ,  cost  of,  87 
— ,  effect  of,  in  nioimtains,  87 


INDEX 


429 


Transportation,  and  oil  industry,  201 

—  in  cyclonic  regions,  343 

equatorial  forests  278 

New  Jersey,  85 

— ,  means  of,  87  f. 
— ,  ocean,  see  Ocean  transportation 
— ,  over  plains  and  mountains,  85  ff. 
— ,  water,  see  Water  transportation 
Trans-shipment,  cost  of,  134 
Tree  crops  among  mountains,  91 

in  France,  91 

Italy,  91 

Mediterranean  region,  91 

Trees  and  climatic  cycles,  370 

—  as  type  of  vegetation,  264 

—  of  California,  370 

mountain  regions,  92 

Triple  Alliance,  382 

—  Entente,  382 

Tropical  countries,  animals  in,  187 

—  farmer,  difficulties  of,  282 

—  forests,  climate  as  barrier  in,  206 

—  grassland,  271 

—  jungle,  see  Jungle. 

—  lands,  agriculture  in,  282 

,  exhaustion  of  soil,  282 

,  grasses  of,  282 

,  insect  pests  in,  283 

—  products,  287 

—  scrub,  271 

Tsetse  fly,  in  tropical  Africa,  278 

Tundra,  275 

Timis,  French  expansion  to,  400 

Tunnel  under  English  Channel,  113 

Tunnels,  130 

Turanian  race,  mental  powers  of,  20 

I'urkestan,  Chinese,  clay  soil  in,  156 

Turkey,  German  influence  in,  403 

—  life  in,  294  f. 

— ,  political  situation  of,  393 

U 

Uncompahgre  Valley,  Colorado,  322 
United  States,  agriculture  in,  263 

,  boundary,  northern,  389 

,  — ,  southern,  388 

,  climate  of,  254 

,  coal  and  iron  in,  177,  179,  1S9 

,  copper  production  in,  181 

,  corn  crop  in,  336 

,  density  of  pojxilatioii,  IS 


United  States,  expansion  of,  398 

,  fisheries  of,  108,  109 

,  geography  and  the  tariff,  385 

,  harbors  of,  116  ff. 

,  health  in,  249 

,  irrigation  in,  320  f . 

—  — ,  method  of  colonial  control,  406 
,  mining  regions  in,  167 

—  — ,  power  resources  of,  202 

,  rainfall  cycles  in,  367 

,  —  in  western  part  of,  240 

,  relations  with  Mexico,  401 

,  trade  with  foreign  countries,  346 

,  water  power  in,  149  if. 

United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, and  nitrification,  165 

Steel  Corporation,  180  f. 

Utah,  irrigation  in,  321 

— ,  population  in  irrigated  areas,  326 


Valleys,  origin  of,  79 
Variability,  optimum,  252 
Vegetable  products,  production  of,  342  f. 
Vegetables,  effect  of  tropical  daylight 

on  seeds  of,  39 
Vegetation  and  civilization,  270  f. 

man,  263  ff. 

in  equatorial  regions,  277  f . 

— ,  effect  of  climate  on,  14 
— ,  —  on  agriculture,  264 
— ,  distribution  of,  270  f . 
— ,  earth's  garment  of,  263 
• — ,  marine,  107 

—  of  cyclonic  regions,  330 
deserts,  273,  312 

—  on  mountains,  268 
— ,  tj-pes  of,  264  ff. 
— ,  zones  of,  268 

Veins,  placer  gold  deposits  from,  171 
\'erkhoyansk,  continental    climate   at, 

224 
Victoria  Falls  on  the  Ivivcr  hjuassu,  149 
— ■  —  on  the  Zambesi,  149 
\'ineyards  in  France,  361 
Virgin  Islands,  military  value  of,  62 

purchased  by  U.  S.,  399 

Virginia  City,  Nevada,  mining  in,  171 
Vladivostok,  port  of,  381 
Volcanoes,  location  of,  55 
A'olga  Hiver,  iiurcnt  of,  134 


430 


INDEX 


W 

Wales,  rnal  IwhIs  of,  109 

Washington  (SUito),\vatorpowcr  of,  14 4 

Water  as  a  defcnso,  112 

source  of  power.  143  fT. 

— ,  bacteria  in.  141 

— ,  chemical  impurities  of,  140 

— ,  smell  of,  140 

— ,  taste  of,  140 

—  barriers,  expense  of,  132  fT. 

,  inland  waters  as,  129  fT. 

,  location  of  cities  determined  by, 

131  f. 

,  Mississippi  River   130 

,  oceans  as,  111 

of  Great  Britain,  112  f. 

■ Japan,  113 

Water  bodies  as  geographic  constant, 
359 

in  human  geography,  4 

■ ,  influence  on  Khirghiz,  13 

■ ,  —  of  lakes  and  relief  on,  144 

—  power,  effect  of  rainfall  on,  144 

, seasonal  variations  on,  147 

in  glaciated  regions,  147  f. 

,   use  of  in  U.  S,  149  ff. 

Water  supi)ly,  kinds  of,  140  f. 

,  methods  of  distributhig,  141 

,  mud  in,  140 

,  need  of,  139 

—  systems,  city,  142 

—  table,  141 

at  London,  143 

—  transportation  64 

*and  cities  of  U.  S.,  122 

,  safety  of,  115 

Waterways,   inland,  sec  Inland  water- 
ways 
— ,  power  needed  f)n,  114 
Weather  as  a  geogra])hic  variable,  'MV.i 
— ,  effect  on  health  and  energy,  24S 

— , man,  24S  ff. 

— ,  influence    of    cyclones    and    anti- 
cyclones on,  217 
Weather  Hureau,  value  of,  304 
Wells,  artesian,  142  f. 

—  as  source  of  water  supply,  141  f. 
— ,  driven,  142 

—  in  Mexico,  141 

"We.st  coa.sts,"  or  subtropical  regions, 
293 


Westerlies  (winds),  213 

Westerly  wind  belts,  rainfall  in,  216 

Western  Kuroi)e,  elTect  of  iron  deposits 

on, 177 
Wheat,  food  value,  356 

—  in  Great  War,  358 

—  production  in  cyclonic  regions,  333 
Wheat-raising  in  California,  302 
Whirls,  oceanic,  234 

— ,  Pacific,  234 

Whisk}',  illicit  inaiiufai'ture,  87 

White  men  in  equatorial  rain  forest,  279 

— -  Mountains  as  tourist  resort,  9S 

Wild  animal  life,   influence  on   Khir- 

ghiz,  15 
Windmills,  187 
Winds  as  cause  of  ocean  currents,  230 

source  of  power,  187  f . 

— ,  deflection  of,  213 
— ,  direction  of,  227 

— -, ,  effect  of  rotation  on,  213 

— ,  effect  of  relief  on,  239 

— ,  —  on  ocean  climate,  106 

— ,  in  relation  to  continents,  227 

- — ,  on  a  simplified  globe,  213 

— ,  trade,  see  Trades 

Winter,  causes  of,  41 

Wisconsin,  glaciated  and  drift  less  area 

of,  157  f. 
— ,  water  i)ower  in,  144,  147 
Witwaters,  South  Africa,  gold  field,  170 
Wood  as  source  of  power,  188 
— ,  distribution  of,  342 
Woodworking  in  Switzerland  ami  Hlack 

Forest,  96 
Wool,  distribution  of,  342 
Work,  effect  of  cyclonic  storms  on,  330ff. 
— ,  ideal  climate  for,  254 


Yangste  River,  navigable  length  of,  134 

,  superior  waterway  of,  138 

Ycjir,  length  of,  25 
Yucatan,  climatic  cycles  in,  371 
— ,  transportation  in,  278 
Yukon,  clothing,  7 
— ,  hinterland,  135 

Z 

Zambesi  River,  current  of,  134 
,  Victoria  Falls  on,  149 


t.ARTH  SCIENCES   LI  BRAKY 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 
tAKTH    SClt.i\«^c^i>    L.iDK>\rtT 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

•. 

O0T-^13BB~~ 

0CTJJ-t372'" 

^-J^^2  1S7J 

APR  -  4  1980 

T  T»  oi    An.^  in  'fir                                       General  Library 

-X^" 


f4 

;3 


